Social implications of Correlation Coefficients and Student's t-test

Lecture Notes: Socio-cultural implications of Correlation Coefficients and t tests
Debdulal Dutta Roy, Ph.D.(Psy.)
Psychology Research Unit
Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata 
Venue: Seminar, Hall, Old Building, Hiralal Mazumdar Memorial College for Women, Kolkata 35


Socio-cultural change, statistics and Bhakti tatwa
Modern society is rapidly changing with the change in the policies of the Government related to technology, liberalization, privatization and globalization. The society is changing by the change in climate, by the change in landscape and by the change in the policies of our neighbouring countries. Social change affects our values, our culture and our lifestyle. Society is open system therefore any change in any part of the system may affect change in the other part. Social change should not be forced. It should serve the needs of larger society, the population. Forced change retaliates. Forced change causes harm to society. Any Socio-cultural change has three steps - unfreezing, changing and refreezing. Hiralal Mazumdar Memorial College for Women was established in 1959 in the vicinity of Dakshineswar to educate women. Educating women causes social and cultural change. The college is close to the Dakshineswar temple where each has equal opportunity to worship the image just like normal probability curve. Once here, many revolutionary social reformers came to understand the flexibility in religion preached by Shri Ramakrishna Paramhansa who has seen the God in sage and in sinner, in righteous and in non-righteous. God has no skewed distribution (asymmetry of the probability distribution) 







 just like normal probability curve. During his period, the society was divided by religion, by caste and by Socio-Economic conditions. As statistician, he identified two different populations and also the latent relations between them. Proving the truth and establishing are not very easy as common people could not understand. So he developed new theory of social change that is mixed with bhakti bad or bhakti tatwa. The bhakti bad reduces the gap between two populations and changes the society.


To sum up, planned socio-cultural change needs statistics. Statistics provides insight about planning for social change and development. It can give us knowledge about roles of predictors, predicted, mediating, moderators and intervening variables in social change. Both correlation and t-statistics are important in designing hypothesis of social change.






Is statistics science ?
The object of statistical science is to discover methods of condensing information concerning large groups of allied facts into brief and compendious expressions suitable for discussion --Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911).

This statement includes 5 important things:
a. Statistics is science rather instrument for assessment.
b. It aims at discovering methods to condense information.
c. It is concerned with large group of allied facts.
d. It aims at condensing information into brief and compendious expression.   Compendious expression means a concise explanation.

Francis Galton (1822-1911)

Sir Francis Galton, FRS (16 February 1822 – 17 January 1911) was an English Victorian statistician, progressive, polymath, sociologist, psychologist,anthropologist, eugenicist, tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, and psychometrician. He was knighted in 1909.

Francis Galton discovered the concept of correlation in the late fall of 1888. In 1870s, Galton was faced with a problem: how to reconcile an empirical fact with a mathematical theorem. The fact was that most physical measurements were approximately normally distributed in the population he studied.  The theorem was the central limit theorem, which stated that the normal distribution should arise when an object is subjected to a large number of independent disturbances,  no few of them dominant. Galton resolved this dilemma with the help of an ingenious analogue computer, the Quincunx.
    In late 1888, Galton was faced three research questions that motivated him to think of correlation.  One was a question in anthropology: if a single thigh bone is recovered from an ancient grave, what does its length tell the anthropologist about the total height or statire of the individual to whom it had belonged? The second was a question in forensic science: is there any relation among different parts of the same person?  His another question is about relation of the heights of parents and of their siblings. After the death of Galton,
his work on correlation was published by Pearson in his journal Biometrika.

Assignment: Compute profile similarity



Contribution of Galton

Galton contributed some important thoughts of computing correlation.
a. Quasi - normal: All physical scales do not have same properties,  therefore, variables that have approximately normal is called quasi-normal.
b. Statistical scale: It is the measurements in terms of the number of standard deviation units from the mean (although Galton used median deviation units from the median).

c. Cross tabulation: Association of the distribution of two sets of variables is cross tabulation. Galton gave cross tabulation of the heights of the adult child and height of the midparent (female heights were rescaled by multiplying by 1.08, and midparent heights were computed by averaging the height of the father and the rescaled height of the mother (Stigler, 1986).
d. Correlation: two variables are correlated because they share a common set of influences. He described the effect of correlation on the dispersion of differences. Low correlation indicates high dispersion of differences.

Karl Pearson was influenced by Galton's work. After the death of Galton, he wrote Galton's work in his journal Biometrika. Both Galton and Pearson didn't consider correlation as causal relations. Like Galton, Pearson treated regression as causal relations.

Karl Pearson (27th March, 1857- 27th April, 1936)

Karl Pearson,FRS,(27 March, 1857 – 27 April, 1936) was an influential English mathematician and biostatistician. He has been credited with establishing the discipline of mathematical statistics, and contributed significantly to the field of biometrics, meteorology, theories of social Darwinism and eugenics.Pearson was also a protégé and biographer of Sir Francis Galton. In 1911 he founded the world's first university statistics department at University College London.

When Galton died, he left the residue of his estate to the University of London for a Chair in Eugenics. Pearson was the first holder of this chair—the Galton Chair of Eugenics, later the Galton Chair of Genetics—in accordance with Galton's wishes. He formed the Department of Applied Statistics (with financial support from the Drapers' Company), into which he incorporated the Biometric and Galton laboratories. He remained with the department until his retirement in 1933, and continued to work until his death in 1936.

Francis Galton conceived correlation and Pearson formulated the product moment correlation coefficient. The formula of r is given below. Correlation is related to covariance.

Covariance and Correlation

Covariance indicates how two variables are related. A positive covariance means the variables are positively related, while a negative covariance means the variables are inversely related. The formula for calculating covariance of sample data is shown below.

x = the independent variable
y = the dependent variable
n = number of data points in the sample
 = the mean of the independent variable x
 = the mean of the dependent variable y

 Correlation is another way to determine how two variables are related. In addition to telling you whether variables are positively or inversely related, correlation also tells you the degree to which the variables tend to move together.

Correlation standardizes the measure of interdependence between two variables and, consequently, tells you how closely the two variables move. The correlation measurement, called a correlation coefficient, will always take on a value between 1 and – 1:

• If the correlation coefficient is one, the variables have a perfect positive correlation. This means that if one variable moves a given amount, the second moves proportionally in the same direction. A positive correlation coefficient less than one indicates a less than perfect positive correlation, with the strength of the correlation growing as the number approaches one.


• If correlation coefficient is zero, no relationship exists between the variables. If one variable moves, you can make no predictions about the movement of the other variable; they are uncorrelated.


• If correlation coefficient is –1, the variables are perfectly negatively correlated (or inversely correlated) and move in opposition to each other. If one variable increases, the other variable decreases proportionally. A negative correlation coefficient greater than –1 indicates a less than perfect negative correlation, with the strength of the correlation growing as the number approaches –1.

Pearson product moment correlation coefficient is very sensitive and non-robust statistics. Therefore, user must be cautious of its assumptions.

Assumptions

Interval or Ratio scale:
Linearly related:
Normally distributed:



MEASUREMENT SCALES

Nominal Scale It is a system of assigning number symbols for labeling. Researcher uses this scale for classification following three principles -minimization, equality and discrimination. Minimization : Response categories are smaller. These are usually 2 or 3. For example, in the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire or EPQ, response categories are three - yes, no, don't know.Discrimination: Assigned numbers should make adequate discrimination between the labels. In EPQ, Items measuring psychoticism do not overlap with items measuring neuroticism. Non-overlapping enhances good discrimination power of the questionnaire. Discrimination principle asserts unequal identity or dissimilar properties in the object or event.Equality: In Nominal Scale, only rule for assigning numbers is that all members of any class shall have the same number and that no two classes shall be assigned the same numbers. This rule accepts principles of equality. Equality principle asserts that each object or event must have same identity. For example, girls with different heights have common property, i.e. they all are girls. Therefore all girl respondents are assigned ‘2’.

INSTRUCTION: Instruction of nominal scale includes how to label the response. For example, put tick mark over 1 if you are boy and over 2 if you are girl.ITEM STEM: Item stem asks for label.

Examples: a) Are you boy or girl? Boy=1, Girl=2. b) What is your religion? Hindu=1, Islam=2, Christian=3. c) What is your Caste? S.T=1, S.C=2, O.B.C=3, General=4.

STATISTICS: Frequency and percentage are common descriptive statistics. Chi-square can be used for drawing inferences. Variables with nominal scale can be used as explanatory or independent variables in t-statistics. By adding frequency of similar response, score can be computed. For example, there are 20 items in the questionnaire, out of them 10 items with 'yes' response measure neuroticism. The questionnaire has been administered to patient suffering from General anxiety disorder. It is noted all the 10 items receive 'yes' response. So the score is 10. Extent of score variation indicates extent of neuroticism. Based on score, distance in traits between individuals can be possible but not between the nominal categories. Distance between Yes, No categories of two items can not be determined.

Advantages: a) Nominal scale is useful for classification or categorization. b) It is more flexible. According to hypothesis, numerical values can be assigned. c) Nominal scale is used as explanatory variable.Disadvantages: a) Nominal scale has no metric properties therefore many parametric statistics requiring continuous distribution can not be determined through nominal scale. b) It requires different statistical conversation techniques to make it continuous.4.3.2

Ordinal Scale Nominal scale can not order the events. It can label the event but can not estimate successive occurrence of events. Ordinal Scale assigns numerals or rank value following principles of successive categories. These principles make discrimination among the set of objects in terms of preference. A set of students can be ordered in terms of academic performance. A set of sportsmen can be ordered in terms of sports performance. Order can be made in the form of ascending like first, second, third or descending order like third, second and first. When two students get same marks, their orders will be same. It is called paired order or tied. Tied orders are averaged and next order occurs after the last order. For example, 3 events possess equal ranks say 3. Then each event will get 3, 4, 5 ranks and the average will be 4. Next event will start from 6. Ordinal scale does not assume equal distance between orders. Distance between 1st and 2nd is not equal to distance between 3rd and 4th. This is the disadvantage of the ordinal scale. Advantage of the ordinal scale is it's flexibility. One can follow both ascending and descending orders.

Instruction: Instruction of ordinal scale includes how to arrange the events in ascending or descending order.

Item stem : Item stem includes the issue or event and it's operational definition.Statistics : When data are arranged in order, frequency, percentage statistics are used like nominal scale. One can estimate which event has received first or second rank by analysis of frequency. One can use median when data are arranged with rank values. Most of the non-parametric statistics follow ordinal scale or ranks. Rank order correlation is widely used statistics when one is interested to determine coefficient of correlation in small sample distribution.

Advantages:

a) Ordinal scale is useful to arrange the objects in ascending or descending order. b) Median value can be estimated through ordinal scale. c) Relative preference of the object can be determined with ordinal scale. d) Several non-parametric statistics use ordinal scale.Disadvantages a) Like, nominal scale, it has limited use in statistics as it does not follow equidistant. b) It can not be scored.

Interval Scale

In ordinal scale one can not make any subtraction or addition to classify the person, object or event. For example, second rank student can not be subtracted from first rank student to find out difference in performance between two ranked persons. Another problem in rank order scale, equidistance assumption can not be made. We can not assume rank difference between 1 and 2 is equal to same between 2 and 3. But interval scale assumes equidistant points between each of the scale elements. The widely used summated rating scale or Likert type rating scale is interval scale. It has properties of metric scale in terms of the extent of differences in response. It is assumed that response difference is equidistant. Some researchers call it as quassi continuous scale as middle response category appears to be neutral. Some researchers argue that this is categorical scale as they merely consider the numerical values. Therefore, we can interpret differences in the distance along the scale. We contrast this to an ordinal scale where we can only talk about differences in order, not differences in the degree of order. Any parametric statistics are useful to analyze the item data.

Instruction: Instruction of ordinal scale includes how to rank. But interval scale includes how to rate the response categories. Interval scale follows maximization principles. Response categories are more and equidistant. Numerals are assigned to different ratings. Widely used ratings are strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree.Item-stem : It can be both affirmative and interrogative. To assess one's happiness, item stem may be how much happy are you ? Or I feel happy always. It must be remembered that response categories should not be in the item stem. In earlier example on 'I feel happy always', response categories should not include the text 'always' rather it can be strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree. Item stem and response categories will be framed in such a manner so that data distribution will not be skewed.Statistics: Interval scale follows equidistant principles, so any parametric statistics can be used.

Advantages: a) Interval scale follows equidistant principles, so any parametric statistics can be used. b) It can be scored. c) it can be classified into groups by cut-off points.Disadvantages: a) Interval scale has undecided point. This violates continuity. b) It does not have neutral point like ratio scale.4.3.4.

Ratio scale: Interval scale measures single dimension of variable across graded series. One's feeling of both happiness and unhappiness can be assessed by interval scale using two separate scales measuring happiness and unhappiness separately. Advantage of ratio scale is to assess both feeling of happiness and unhappiness simultaneously. For example, watching black cloud, farmers sometimes feel pleasant and sometimes feel unpleasant. Ratio scale is composed of two bi-polar adjectives. One adjective will be extremely opposite of another. For example, strong and weak, good and bad, active and lazy. This scale is often called as semantic differential scale as meaning of object or event is differentiated semantically with opposite adjectives. As per hypothesis, rating value is assigned to the adjective. Strong, good and active are assigned +3 and weak, bad and lazy are given -3 rating. So two opposite adjectives are located at two opposite poles of neutral point or 0. Other grades like -1,-2 are located between 0 and -3. Similarly, +1 and +2 are located between 0 and 3. So, final scale to assess strong and weak dimension will be +3, +2, +1, 0,-1,-2,-3. So, there are two interval scales ranging from +1 to +3 and from -1 to -3. Respondent assumes +3 as very strong, +2 as strong. Likewise, -3 as very weak, -2 as weak. And 0 is conceived as neutral.

Here zero stands for neither more nor less than none of the property represented by the scale. Instruction: Instruction includes systematic rating from 0 to -3 or from 0 to +3. As there is no label from 0 to +3 or from 0 to -3, respondent can assign own label following direction of adjectives. For example, instead of very strong, respondent can think of very much strong.Item-stemScoring: Before scoring, researcher first assumes meaning of high score. For example, +3 is highest score and -3 is lowest. Then +3 will be replaced by 7 and -3 will be replaced by 1. 0 will be replaced by 4. So, highest score will be 7 and lowest score will be 1. Statistics: Like interval scale, any parametric and non-parametric statistics can be used with ratio scale.Advantages: a) Ratio scale can assess one object with bi-polar adjectives simultaneously. b) Like normal probability curve, ratio scale assumes bi-polarity. It has zero like normal probability distribution. And the successive gradation from 0 to +3 or -3 is equidistant. Therefore, it can be used in any parametric statistics. c) It is less time consuming for data collection. d) It can assess different dimensions of one object simultaneously. Osgood has noted three opposite dimensions using ratio scale.Disadvantages: a)Theoretically, one can not say that attributes of satisfaction are opposite of dissatisfaction. Herzberg has proved that attributes of job satisfaction is not opposite of the same for assessing job dissatisfaction. Therefore, use of bi-polar adjectives for assessing one event can not provide sufficient information. b) It is complex to score as rating values during data collection are replaced by another value during scoring. c) No event can be neutral, therefore considering 0 value as neutral is not meaningful.

Linear and Non-linear 

In linear relationships, any given change in an independent variable will always produce a corresponding change in the dependent variable.Non-linear relationships are not linear, which means by doubling one variable, the other variable will not double. For example, the square is not linear. It is quadratic relations.

Normal Distribution

Homoscedasticity: 

This assumption means that the variance around the regression line is the same for all values of the predictor variable (X). The plot shows a violation of this assumption. For the lower values on the X-axis, the points are all very near the regression line.




Student's t-distribution

Karl Pearson stressed on large sample for statistical computation. His student, William Sealy Gosset, published one research paper titled " Probable error of Mean" in Pearson's journal, Biometrika on t-statistics in the pen name 'Student' in 1908. If the number of experiments be very large, we may have precise information as to the value of the mean, but if our sample be small, we have two sources of uncertainty-(i)owing to the "error of random sampling" the mean of our series of our experiments deviates more or less widely from the mean of the population and (2) the sample is not sufficiently large to determine what is the law of distribution of individuals. Gosset formulated a formal method using small samples in order to generate representative statistics.

The Student’s t-test

The Student’s t-test is a statistical test that can be used to test the null hypothesis that the difference between 2 means was caused by chance alone.  By convention, if the p value is greater than 0.05 we conclude that the difference between the 2 means is NOT significant (i.e. there is a relatively high probability that it was caused by chance alone.)  On the other hand, if the p value is less than 0.01 we conclude that the difference between the 2 mean is highly significant (i.e. there is a very low probability that it was caused by chance alone.)  A p value between 0.01 and 0.05 is considered a borderline region, the difference is considered significant but not highly significant.  In this case we would probably want to collect more data before we make a conclusion.

Research Studies
1.A Study on Self-reported Socio-Economic status by the  Primary school children in rural areas: A problem of Social Survey -by Author

Ref: "A Study on Self-reported Socio-Economic status by the  Primary school children in rural areas: A problem of Social Survey”. by Author

References

Stigler, S.M. (1986). The history of Statistics: The Measurement of uncertainty before 1900. Belknap Press, Cambridge, Mass.

Stigler, S.M. (1889). Francis Galton's account of the invention of correlation.  Statistical science, 4, 2, 73-86.

Karl Pearson was influenced by Galton's work. After the death of Galton, he wrote Galton's work in his journal Biometrika. Both Galton and Pearson didn't consider correlation as causal relations. Like Galton, Pearson treated regression as causal relations.

https://projecteuclid.org/download/pdf_1/euclid.ss/1177012580

References

Galton, Francis. "Co-relations and their Measurement, chiefly from Anthropometric Data." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, v45 (Nov 15 - April 11) 1888.

School Psychology Syllabus

TITLE:  SOCIAL JUSTICE APPROACH TO SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

OBJECTIVES:

Social Justice 

Social justice includes a vision of society in which the distribution of resources is equitable and all members are physically and psychologically safe and secure. Social justice activism involves persons who have a sense of their own power as well as a sense of social responsibility toward and with others and the society as a whole. Social justice in educational psychology includes an awareness by faculty and students of the multiple and systemic factors (e.g., demographic—age, race, socioeconomic status; interpersonal—teacher-student relationships; contextual—family, cultural hegemony, racism, sexism) that influence individuals’ cognition, affect, and behavior and the environmental contexts in which people live. Social justice in educational psychology also embraces research and teaching that emphasize just and unbiased treatment of all human beings.

Working toward a socially just educational psychology involves careful examination of the interplay between environmental (e.g., social, historical, cultural, political), personal (e.g., belief, perception, cognition, affect), and behavioral (e.g., social, academic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, self-regulatory, career-related, health) factors as they pertain to the functioning of all education stakeholders, students and teachers in particular. Therefore, a commitment to social justice in educational psychology requires sensitivity to and respect for diversity of thought and action throughout the content of educational psychology coursework and research and among members of the local and global community.

There are many ways in which we believe an educational psychologist can be an advocate for social justice. Educational psychologists who promote social justice will

• Promote equity and justice for all human beings
• Identify who they are as beings in this world and how their unique experiences have shaped their current worldviews about people different from themselves
• Inform multiple communities of learners about educational practices that facilitate and undermine the opportunities of all students to achieve academic, physical, and psychological well-being
• Question whether existing theoretical models are appropriate for all groups of learners
• Increase their own and others’ awareness of the micro-, meso-, and macro-level contextual factors affecting the lives of students, teachers, administrators, parents, and community members
• Explore alternative explanations of student performance (and relevant factors)
• Conduct research that directly or indirectly informs socially-just educational practices
• Provide education practitioners and stakeholders with resources to address social justice issues
• Promote difficult dialogues within educational settings that advance critical thinking about a variety of social justice issues

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NIMHANS SYLLABUS

M.PHIL (CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY) Guidelines & Syllabus Rehabilitation Council of India New Delhi M.Phil in Clinical Psychology 

INTRODUCTION Mental health problems ranging from mild to severe are continuously on the rise. To cater to the needs of people suffering from a variety of psychological ailments, trained mental health professionals are needed. Clinical Psychology, which was largely an academic discipline earlier, has become one of the major professions in the area of mental health care. Clinical Psychologists apply knowledge and methods from various fields of biopsychosocial sciences for promotion and maintenance of mental health of individuals. Varieties of techniques, methods derived from several branches of psychology are used in prevention, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of physical and mental disorders where psychological factors play a major role. Different methods and forms of psychological methods and techniques are used to relieve an individual's emotional distress or any other form of dysfunction or disability. Thus, Clinical Psychologists now play an important role for optimizing health care delivery system. As of now, Clinical Psychologists are trained only at three well recognised centers in the country. There is an acute need to train more professional clinical psychologists in order to meet the increasing demands in the new area. A report on Manpower Development of the Council based on recommendations of National Conference on Manpower Development specifies the number of Clinical Psychologists to be trained to cope with the rising demand as 100 and 200 per year in the 9th and 10th five-year Plan, respectively. Today, hardly 20 Clinical Psychologists are being produced every year in the country. Thus, there is an urgent need to train more professional Clinical Psychologists to face the growing demands in the new millennium. The Council hopes that the following guidelines will help intending institutions to start M.Phil Clinical Psychology training program to strengthen their resource base in terms of infrastructure and personnel for providing a cohesive, meaningful programme, so that the trainees after successful completion of their M.Phil in Clinical Psychology course shall be able to discharge their responsibilities competently as clinicians, teacher/trainers, scientists and research workers in the field of mental health. 2.0 AIM & OBJECTIVES OF M.PHIL CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY COURSE 2.1 Aim The aim of the course is to prepare the student to function as a qualified professional Clinical Psychologist in the area of Mental Health by offering diagnostic, therapeutic and rehabilitative services. 2.2 Objectives The course is organized as a rigorous two-year program with extensive theoretical inputs and adequate clinical experience and skill to provide training in the area of Clinical Psychology. On completion of the course, the student/trainee is expected to perform the following functions: 2.2.1 Diagnose mental health problems. 1 2.2.2 Undertake therapeutic programs to treat/manage mental health problems. 2.2.3 Apply psychological principles and techniques in rehabilitating persons with mental health problems and disabilities. 2.2.4 Work with the psychosocial dimensions of physical diseases and illness behavior, and formulate/undertake well-targeted psychosocial interventions. 2.2.5 Undertake research in the areas of clinical psychology, mental health/illness and in areas of physical health/diseases. 2.2.6 Undertake teaching assignments in Clinical Psychology. 3.0 REQUIRMENTS TO START M.PHIL CLINIAL PSYCHOLOGY COURSE 3.1.1 There shall be an independent Department of Clinical Psychology in the Institute/University. 3.1.2 There shall be at least two permanent clinical psychology faculty in the department and out of which one should have at least seven years of experience (post-qualification) of M.Phil in Clinical Psychology in clinical teaching/research. 3.1.3 Sufficient clinical material/facilities should be available to meet the requirements outlined in the syllabus. 3.1.4 Adequate infrastructure for availability of indoor or outdoor patients in mental hospitals/psychiatric institutes, other mental health institutes, child guidance centres, other recognised centres for treating mental illness, mental retardation and other rehabilitation institutes should be available to carry out professional activities like psychodiagnostic work ups, psychotherapies, behavior therapies, rehabilitation services etc. 3.1.5 Active liaison with departments like Psychiatry, Neurology, Neurosurgery, Paediatrics, Psychiatric Social Work, Statistics and other specialties should be existing currently. Facilities to post students for supervised training to other institutes depending upon the needs and resources should be existing. 3.1.6 Adequate library facilities with textbooks, reference books, important national and international journals, access to Internet should be available. 4.0 REGULATIONS OF THE COURSE 4.1 Number of Seats Since this is a fulltime clinical training course, the number of students offered training will depend on the availability of faculty members and qualified clinical psychologists working in the department on permanent status, and the clinical infrastructure/facilities available at the concerned institute. In order to make the training effective, therefore, the intake of the students in an academic year shall not exceed the following ratio. Faculty (permanent) - Student ratio 1:4 Clinical Psychologist (permanent, non-faculty) - Student ratio 1:2 2 4.2 Entry requirement Minimum educational requirement for admission to this course will be M.A./M.Sc. degree in Psychology from a University recognized by the UGC with a minimum of 55% marks in aggregate, preferably with special paper in Clinical Psychology. For SC/ST/OBC category, minimum of 50% marks in aggregate is essential. Candidates with M.A. / M.Sc. Degree by correspondence course, part-time course or by distance education are not eligible. 4.3 Admission Procedure A selection committee that includes Head of the Department of Clinical Psychology shall make admission on the basis of an entrance examination, consisting of a written test and an interview. 4.4 Duration This is a full time clinical training course providing opportunities for appropriate practicum and apprenticeship experiences for 2 academic years, divided as Part I and II. 4.5 Attendance a) Course of study must, unless special exemption is obtained, continuously be pursued. Any interruption in a student's attendance during the course of study, due to illness or other extraordinary circumstances, must be notified to the Head of the Institution and permission should be obtained. b) A minimum attendance of 80% (in the academic term) shall be necessary for taking the respective examination. 4.6 Content of the Course (See section 5.0 for subject wise syllabus of Part I & II) I Year (Part I) Group “A” Paper I : Psychosocial Foundation of Behavior Paper II : Statistics and Research Methodology Paper III : Psychiatry Practical : Practical in Psychodiagnostics including Viva Voce Group “B” Submission : Submission of five full length Psychodiagnostic records (out of five, one should be child case) 3 II Year (Part II) Group “A” Paper I : Biological Foundations of Behavior Paper II : Psychotherapy and Counseling Paper III : Behavioral Medicine Practical : Practical in Clinical Application of Psychology including Viva Voce Group “B” Submission : Submission of five fully worked out Therapeutic case records (out of five, one should be child therapy record) Group “C” Dissertation : A Dissertation under the guidance of a Clinical Psychology Faculty 4.7 Minimum prescribed clinical work during the two year of training. By the end I Year of II Year * ___________________________ 1) Detailed case histories 30 50 2) Clinical Interviews 20 40 3) Full length Psychodaignostics 20 35 4) Therapeutics i) Behavioral Interventions 100 hr. ii) Psychological Therapies 100 hr. Therapy work should be not less than 25 hr. of work in each of the following areas: a) Therapies with children b) Individual therapies with adults c) Family/marital/group therapy d) Psychological and/or neuropsychological rehabilitation * Includes the work done in I year 4 4.8 Requirement/Submission a) Before appearing Part I examination the candidate has to attain competence in the coretests prescribed and a certificate from the Head of the Department to this effect should accompany the application for Part I of the examination. b) The application for appearing at the Part I and II of the examination should be accompanied by a certificate issued by the Head of the Department that the candidate has undergone the course of study and has carried out the clinical work and research assignments as prescribed in the syllabus. c) Two months before the Part I examination every candidate should submit 5 full length Psychodiagnostic reports. d) Three months before the Part II examination every candidate should submit 5 Therapeutic case records. e) A dissertation carried out under the guidance of a clinical psychology faculty should be completed and submitted two months before the Part II examination, in triplicate. 4.9 Internal Assessment In each subject 30% marks will be determined based on written/clinical exams, viva-voce and supervised clinical work. These marks will be added to the marks allocated to the respective subjects in the yearly final examinations. The results of the final examinations will be declared on the basis of the total so obtained. The guidelines for allotting the internal marks may be prepared by the institution concerned. 4.10 Examination a) The examination will be held in two parts (Part I and II). Part I is held at the end of first year and Part II is held at the end of second year. The student will not be allowed to take the Part II examination unless he/she has passed the Part I examination. b) A candidate who has not appeared or failed in Part I of the regular examination may be allowed to continue the course for the II year and be allowed to take the supplementary examination. c) A minimum period of 3 months additional attendance shall be necessary for a candidate before appearing for the examination in case he fails to clear Part I and/or Part II within a period of 3 years from the year of admission to the course. 4.11 Examination Fee The prescribed examination fee as laid down from time to time by the concerned Institution to appear for Part I and Part II of the examination should be paid as per the concerned university regulations. 4.12 Scheme of Examination 5 I Year (Part - I) Marks ________________________________ Final Internal Papers Title Duration Examination Assessment Total (Maximum) (Maximum) ________________________________________________________________________ Group “A” Paper I: Psychosocial 3 hr. 70 30 100 Foundations of Behavior Paper II: Statistics and 3 hr. 70 30 100 Research Methodology Paper III:Psychiatry 3 hr. 70 30 100 Practical/Clinical & Viva Voce in 70 30 100 Psychodiagnostics Group “B” Submission of 5 cases of full length Psychodiagnostics 100 100 ______ 500 ______ 6 II Year (Part - II) Marks ________________________________ Final Internal Papers Title Duration Examination Assessment Total (Maximum) (Maximum) ______________________________________________________________________ Group “A” Paper I: Biological 3 hr. 70 30 100 Foundations of Behavior Paper II: Psychotherapy 3 hr. 70 30 100 and Counseling Paper III:Behavioral 3 hr. 70 30 100 Medicine Practical/Clinical & Viva Voce in 140 60 200 Clinical Applications of Psychology Group “B” Submission of 5 fully worked out 100 100 Therapeutic Case Records Group “C” Dissertation 70 30 100 _____ 700 _____ 7 4.13 Board of Examination A board consisting of 4 examiners of which 2 shall be external will conduct the examination. Other examiners, external or internal appointed for this purpose, will assist the board. The Chairman of the board of examiners will be the Head of the Department of Clinical Psychology who will also be an internal examiner. Two examiners, one internal and one external, shall evaluate each theory paper and dissertation. Two examiners, of whom one shall be external, will conduct the practical/clinical and vivo-voce examination. 4.14 Minimum for Pass a) No candidate shall be declared to have passed in either of the two parts of the M.Phil examination unless he/she obtains not less than 50% of the marks in: i. Each of the theory paper ii. Each of the practical/clinical and viva-voce examination iii. Each of the submissions iv. The dissertation (in case of part II only) a) A candidate who obtains 75% and above marks in the aggregate of both the parts shall be declared to have passed with distinction. A candidate who secures between 60 and 75% of marks in the aggregate of both the parts shall be declared to have passed M.Phil degree in I Class. The other successful candidates as per the class (a) of the above shall be declared to have passed M.Phil degree in II Class. If a candidate fails to pursue the course on a continuous basis, or fails or absent himself/herself from appearing any of the university theory and practical exams of Part I and II, the class shall not be awarded. The merit class (Distinction/First Class) is awarded to those candidates who pass both Part I and II examinations in first attempt. b) No candidate shall be permitted to appear either of Part I or II examination more than three times. 4.15 Appearance for each examination a) A candidate shall appear for all the Group of Part I and Part II examination when appearing for the first time. b) A candidate in Part I and II, failing in any of the “Group-A” subjects has to appear again in all the “Group-A” subjects. c) A candidate in Part I, failing in “Group-B” has to resubmit 5 full length Psychodiagnostic case records. d) A candidate in Part II, failing in “Group-B” has to resubmit 5 fully worked out Psychotherapeutic case records. e) A candidate in Part II, failing in “Group-C”, has to reappear/resubmit the dissertation as asked for/outlined by the examiners. 5.0 SUBJECT WISE SYLLABUS OF PART I AND II (As enclosed) 8 M.PHIL IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY Syllabus - I Year (Part I) Paper I : PSYCHOSOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR PATHOLOGY & ITS RELATION TO CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY _____________________________________________________________________ Part - A Unit I: Mental Health and Illness: Concept of positive mental health; psychological well being; mental health and illness; attitude towards mental illness; epidemiological studies and socio-demographic correlates of mental illness in India. Unit II: Clinical Psychology & Mental Health: History of Clinical Psychology and its role in understanding and alleviation of mental illness, promotion of mental health and rehabilitation of the mentally ill or handicapped; training of Clinical Psychologists and issues concerning scientist professional model; role and function of Clinical Psychologists in community mental health/rehabilitation programme, in mental hospitals/psychiatric institutions, NGO set-up; broader perspective of clinical psychology to help minorities, the social disadvantaged, women in special condition. Unit III: Psychosocial aspects of mental health and illness: The role of self-concept, selfimage and self-perception in the development of behavior; attribution theory; social skill and interpersonal models of mental health/illness. Unit IV: Social Pathology: Crime and delinquency, suicide, addictive behavior, social aggression with special reference to Indian context. Unit V: Culture, Mental Illness and Role of Family : Social class; social change; culture shock; migration, religion and gender related issues with special reference to India; role of family in mental health and illness; communication problems and emotional adaptation/ maladaptation in family set-up; stress-burden/mental illness among care-givers in the family; expressed emotions and relapse. Unit VI: Disability and Rehabilitation: Psychosocial aspects of disability and rehabilitation in Indian context; the role of family and society in the education, training and rehabilitation of disabled. Unit VII: Ancient Indian thought: Ancient Indian concept of cognition, emotion, personality, motivation and their disorders; social identity and stratification (including Varnashram Vyawastha). Part – B (Psychopathology) Unit VIII: Introduction to psychopathology: Etiology of mental disorders - psychosocial models. Unit IX: Psychopathology of Neurotic, Stress-related and Somatoform Disorders: Anxiety disorders; Dissociative (conversion) disorders; Obsessive compulsive disorder; 9 Phobic anxiety disorders; Somatoform disorders, Adjustment disorders and Behavioral syndromes associated with Psychophysiological disturbances. Unit X: Psychopathology of Psychotic Disorders: Schizophrenia; delusional disorders; mood (affective) disorders, and other psychotic disorders. Unit XI: Psychopathology of Personality and Behavior Disorders: Specific personality disorders; Habit and impulse disorders; Mental and behavioral disorders due to psychoactive substance use; Sexual dysfunctions and disorders; Psychoactive substance use disorders. Unit XII: Psychopathology of Old Age: Process of aging; stress & coping; psychological disorders in old age; research and current trends in this field. Unit XIII: Psychopathology of Childhood and Adolescence Disorders: Psychopathology of emotional, behavioral and developmental disorders of childhood and adolescence. Paper – II : STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ____________________________________________________________________________ Unit I: Various methods to ascertain knowledge, Scientific method and its features; levels of measurement of psychological variables - nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. Problems in measurement in behavioral sciences. Constructing rating scales and attitude scales. Internal consistency of the items and Cronbach alpha coefficient. Reliability, Validity and their estimation. Sampling - Random and non-random samples. Various methods of sampling - Simple random, stratified, systematic, cluster and multistage sampling. Sampling and non-sampling errors and methods of minimizing these errors. Concept of probability; Probability distribution - Normal, Poisson, Binomial. Descriptive statistics - Central tendency, dispersion, skewness and kurtosis. Simple linear regression and correlation. Unit II: Basics of testing of hypothesis: Null hypothesis, alternate hypothesis, type I and type II errors, level of significance, power of the test, p-value. Concept of standard error and confidence interval. Tests of significance - "t" test, normal test and "F" test. Non-parametric statistics - requirement of non-parametric statistics, MannWhitney U-test, Wilcoxon test, Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. Unit III: Experimental design: Randomization, Replication, Completely randomized design, Randomized block design, factorial design, crossover design. One-way and Twoway analysis of variance, analysis of covariance, repeated measures analysis of variance. 10 Unit IV: Epidemiological studies: Prospective and retrospective studies, case control and cohort studies, rates, sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, Kappa statistics, odds ratio, relative risk, population attributable risk, Mantel Haenzel test, prevalence, and incidence. Age specific, disease specific and adjusted rates, standardization of rates. Tests of association, 2 x 2 and row x column contingency tables. Unit V: Multivariate analysis: Introduction, Multiple regression and correlation, logistic regression, factor analysis, cluster analysis, discriminant function analysis, path analysis, MANOVA, Canonical correlation, and Multidimensional scaling. Unit VI: Life table techniques, survival analysis: Kaplan-Meir product limit estimates, survival curves, comparison of survival curves, Cox proportional hazard model. Unit VII: Sample size estimation: Sample size determination for estimation of mean, estimation of proportion, comparing two means and comparing two proportions. Unit VIII: Qualitative analysis of data: Content analysis, qualitative methods of psychosocial research. Unit IX: Use of computers: Use of relevant statistical package in the field of behavioral science and their limitations. Paper - III: PSYCHIATRY ________________________________________________________________ Unit I: Nomenclature: Introduction to classificatory systems currently in use and their limitations. Unit II: Psychoses: Schizophrenia, affective (mood) disorders, delusional disorders and other forms of psychotic disorders – types, clinical features, etiology and management. Unit III: Neurotic, Stress-related and Somatoform disorders: types, clinical features, etiology and management. Unit IV: Disorders of personality and behavior: Specific Personality disorders, Mental & behavioral disorders due to psychoactive substance use, Habit and impulse disorders, Sexual disorders and dysfunctions. Unit V: Organic mental disorders: types, clinical features, etiology and management. Unit VI: Behavioral, emotional and developmental disorders of childhood and adolescence: types, clinical features, etiology and management. Unit VII: Mental Retardation: Classification, etiology and management/ rehabilitation. Unit VIII: Treatment and Management of Mental Disorders: Drug, ECT, psychosurgery, psychotherapy, behavior therapy, preventive and rehabilitative strategies. 11 Unit VIX: Mental health policies and legislation: Mental Health Act of 1987, National Mental Health Program 1982, the persons with disabilities (equal opportunities, protection of rights and full participation) Act 1995; Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) Act of 1993, National Trust for Mental Retardation, CP and Autistic Children 1999, Juvenile Justice Act of 1986. Forensic issues related to mental disorders. Practical - PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS (I Year) ________________________________________________________________ (Standardized vernacular version of tests/scales, if available, may be added in the following sections.) Unit I: Introduction: Case History Taking; Mental State Examination, Rationales of Psychological Testing, Observations, Response recording, Syntheses of information from different sources, Formats of report writing. Unit II: Tests of Cognitive Functions: Bender Gestalt test, Wechsler Memory Scale; PGI Memory Scale, Bhatia's Battery of Performance Tests of Intelligence; Binet-Kamat test of Intelligence; Raven's progressive Matrices (Standard and Advanced); Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Indian Adaptation (WAPIS - Ramalingaswamy's), WAIS-R. Unit III: Tests for Diagnostic Clarification: A) Tests of thought disorders. Color form sorting test, Object Sorting Test, Proverbs Test, Arithmetic Test B) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI); Multiphasic Questionnaire (MPQ), Clinical Analysis Questionnaire C) Screening Instruments such as GHQ, HADS etc. to detect Psychopathology. Unit IV: Tests for Adjustment and Personality Assessment: A) Questionnaires and Inventories - 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF), Eyesenk's personality Inventory (EPI), Eysenck's Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), Rottor's Locus of Control Scale (LOC); Bell's Adjustment Inventory (Students' and Adults') Subjective well-being questionnaires B) Projective Technique/Tests - Sentence Completion Test (SCT); Picture Frustration Test (Udai Pareek's ); Draw-A-Person Test; TAT - Murray's and Uma Chowdhary's; Rorschach Psychodiagnostic. Unit V: Rating Scales: Self-rated and observer-rated scales of different clinical conditions such as anxiety, depression, mania, OCD, phobia, panic disorder etc. (including Leyton's obsessional inventory, Y-BOCS, BDI, STAI, HADS, HARS, SANS, SAPS, PANSS, BPRS), issues related to clinical applications and new developments. Unit VI: Psychological Assessment of Children: A) Introduction, B) Developmental Psychopathology Check List, CBCL, C) Administration, Scoring and interpretation of Tests of Intelligence Scale for children such as SFB, C-RPM, Malin's WISC, Binet's tests, and Developmental Schedules (Gesell's, Illingworth's and other) Vineland Social Maturity Scale, AMD adaptation scale for Mental Retardation, BASIC-MR etc. D) Tests of Scholastic Abilities. NIMHANS Index for Specific 12 Learning Disabilities - Tests of Attention, Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Visuomotor Gestalt, and Integration, E) Projective Techniques, Raven's Controlled projection Test, Draw-A-Person Test, Children's Apperception Test. Unit VII: Tests for People with Disabilities: WAIS-R, WISC-R (for visual handicapped), Blind Learning Aptitude Test, Kauffman's Assessment Battery and such other tests/scales for physically handicapped individuals. 13 Syllabus - II Year (Part II) Paper - I: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR ____________________________________________________________ Part – A (Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry of CNS) Unit - I: Anatomy of the Brain: Major anatomical sub-divisions of the human brain, the surface anatomy and interior structures of cortical and sub-cortical regions. Anatomical connectivity among the various regions. The blood supply to brain and the CSF system, cytoarchitecture and modular organization in the brain. Unit - II: Neuronal Signaling: The membrane property and ion channels of neurons for electrical signaling, action potential, the role of synapses and neurotransmitters in inter neuronal communication. Recording the nerve action potential (practical demonstration). Unit - III: Biochemistry of Central Nervous System: Biochemical constituents of Brain; Brain function and importance of Glucose; Metabolic aspects of Central Nervous System; Biochemical aspects of Metabolic defects. Unit - IV: Neural Transmission: Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators including Neuropeptides; Pharmacochemical aspects of Neurotransmitters; Neurotransmitter dysfunction in behavioral disorders. Unit - V: Neuroendocrine System: Endocrine System and Neuroimmune System; Hormones & Functions; Disturbances in Endocrine System and Behavioral Disorders; Psychoneuroimmunology Unit - VI: Concept of Inheritance: Structure and Function of Chromosomes; Genetics aspects of major psychoses; Genetic abnormalities in Mental Retardation; Genetic Counseling. Unit - VII: Neurobiology of Sensory and Motor Systems: The organization of sensory system in terms of receptors, relay neurons, Thalamus and cortical processing of different sensations. Principle motor mechanisms of the periphery (muscle spindle), Thalamus, basal ganglia, brain stem, cerebellum and cerebral cortex. Unit - VIII: Neurobiology of Drives and Motivation: Mechanisms of Aggression, Hunger, Thirst and Sex Unit - IX: Regulation of Internal Environment: Role of limbic, autonomic and the neuroendocrine system in regulating the internal environment. Reticular formation and other important neural substrates regulating the state of sleep/wakefulness. State of consciousness/brain death. Unit - X: Neurobiology of Learning and Memory: Neurochemical aspects of Learning and Memory; Role of RNA & Proteins; Disturbances in Memory Mechanism. 14 Part – B (Neuropsychology) Unit- XI: Frontal lobe syndrome: Disturbances of regulatory functions. Attentional processes, Emotions, Memory and Intellectual activity; Language and Motor functions. Unit-XII: Temporal lobe syndrome: Special senses, hearing, Vestibular functions and integrative functions; Disturbances in learning and memory functions, language emotions, time perception and consciousness. Unit - XIII: Parietal and Occipital lobe syndromes: Disturbances in sensory functions and body schema perception, Agnosias and Apraxias; Disturbances in visual space perception; color perception, writing and reading ability. Unit - XIV: Neuropsychological profile of various Neurological Conditions: Huntington's disease, Parkinsons's disease, Progressive Supranuclear Palsy, Thalamic degenerative disease, Multiple sclerosis, cortical and subcortical dementias, Alzheimer's dementia, AIDS dementia complex etc. Unit - XV: Cerebral Organization: Principles of Functional localization and lateralization, Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. Unit - XVI: Functional Human Brain Mapping: QEEG, ERP, PET, SPECT, FMRI Unit - XVII: Neuropsychological assessment: LNNB, PGI-BBD, NIMHANS and other batteries of neuropsychological tests in current use. Paper - II: PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING __________________________________________________________ Unit - I: Introduction to Psychotherapy and Counseling: Definitions, Objectives, Training, Professional and ethical issues, planning and recording of therapy. Unit - II: The Therapeutic Relationship: Client and Therapist Characteristics, Illness, Technique and other factors influencing the relationship. Unit - III: Interviewing: Objectives of interviews, interviewing techniques, types of interview, characteristics of structured and unstructured interview, interviewing skills, open-ended questions, clarification, reflection, facilitation and confrontation. Silences in interviews, verbal and non-verbal components. Unit - IV: Psychodynamic Psychotherapy: Origins of Psychodynamic Formulation, Stages of therapy, Process issues; Resistance, Interpretation Transference and Counter Transference, and working through and current status. Unit - V: Humanistic-Existential and Experiential Therapies: Historical context and philosophical basis, principles and types of therapy, current status. Unit - VI: Cognitive Therapies: Introduction to Cognitive Model, basic principles and assumptions, therapeutic techniques based on Cognitive Therapy, Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Rational Emotive Therapy. Application issues. 15 Unit - VII: Supportive Psychotherapy: Definition, goal indications, techniques. Directive and non-directive psychotherapy, current forms of "e-" and tele-counseling. Unit - VIII: Brief Psychotherapy: Historical context, characteristics of brief psychotherapy, selection criteria, process issues, effectiveness. Unit - IX: Crisis Intervention: Definition of Crisis, phases of Crisis, Techniques, Stages of crisis work, Applications. Unit - X: Group Therapy: Historical origins, theoretical models, types groups, stages of group therapy, process issues including role of the therapist, techniques, applications of group therapy. Unit - XI: Family Therapy: The development of family therapy, schools of family therapy, models for the assessment of families, common family problems and their treatment, treatment goals, methods of therapy, terminating treatment, research in family therapy, ethics in family therapy. Unit - XII: Marital Therapy: Development of marital therapy, current approaches, divorce and mediation, pre-marital counseling. Unit - XIII: Sex Therapy: Individual and couple sex therapy, techniques, sex counseling, current approaches, issues related to research. Unit - XIV: Therapy with children: Introduction to different approaches, Psychoanalytic therapies (Ana Freud, Melanie Klein, Donald Winnicott); Special Techniques (Behavioral and Play) for developmental internalizing and externalizing disorders. Therapy in special conditions such as psycho-physiological and chronic physical illness; Parent and Family Counseling, Therapy with adolescents. Unit - XV: Therapy in Special Conditions: Therapies and techniques in the treatment of Deliberate self harm, Bereavement, Personality Disorders, Chronic Mental illness and Medical conditions such as Cancer, Cardiovascular Diseases, HIV/AIDS, and other terminally ill conditions. Physical, sensory and intellectual disabilities. Unit - XVI: Psychotherapy in the Indian Context: Historical perspective in psychological healing practices from the Vedic period and the systems of Ayurveda and Yoga, Contemporary perspectives. Socio-cultural issues in the practice of psychotherapy. Unit-XVII: Research in Psychotherapy: Introduction to psychotherapy Research, issues related to process and outcome. Paper – III: BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE ________________________________________________________ Unit - I: Theoretical foundations: Learning, biological and cognitive foundations; Behavioral assessment, analysis and formulations (for Neuroses, Psychoses and other conditions, including physical disorders). 16 Unit - II: Therapeutic Procedures: Relaxation procedures - Jacobson's Progressive Muscular Relaxation, Autogenic training, Shavasana, Meditation and other forms of eastern methods of Relaxation. Desensitization and Extinction Procedures – Imaginal and in vivo, graded exposure, enriched desensitization, assisted desensitization, Flooding and Implosion, Response prevention, Emotive imagery and other forms of desensitization. Social skills Training - Assertiveness training, Modeling, Behavioral Rehearsal, Communication skills training. Operant procedures - Application of Reinforcement Principles, Token economy, Contingency Management. Aversive conditioning Therapies - Faradic aversion therapy, Chemical aversion therapy, covert sensitization, Aversion relief procedure, Anxiety relief procedure and avoidance conditioning therapy. Biofeedback procedures - EMG, GSR, EEG, Thermal, EKG. Self control procedures - Thought stop, Paradoxical intention, Stimulus satiation. Cognitive Behavior therapies - Rational Emotive Behavior therapy, Cognitive therapy, Cognitive Behavior therapy, Stress Inoculation Training and other methods. Other approaches - Behavioral Counseling, Clinical Hypnotherapy, Group behavioral approaches, Behavioral family/marital therapies. Unit - III: Clinical Applications: Clinical applications of behavioral techniques in the management of anxiety disorders, speech and psychomotor disorders, substance use, Sexual dysfunction and deviant behaviors, personality disorders, Management of Childhood disorders, Psychotic disorders, stress and pain conditions, chronic mental illness and medical conditions such as Cancer, cardiovascular diseases and HIV/ AIDS. Unit - IV: Research in Behavioral Intervention: Introduction to behavioral intervention research - issues related to process and outcome. ******* 17