Research methods in Psychology

 

Introspection Method

This is the oldest method of educational psychology. The word ‘introspection’ has been derived from two Latin words, ‘intro’ meaning ‘withing’ and ‘spiere’ meaning to ‘look’. Therefore introspection implies ‘self observation’, or in other words, to experience one’s own mental state i.e., to observe, analyze and report one’s own feelings.
Now let us turn to two psychologists James and Stout to know what they have said about psychological method in education.

According to William James, “Introspective observation is what we have to rely on first and foremost and always. The word intro-spection needs hardly to be defined - it means, of course, looking into our own minds and recording what we there discover. Everyone agrees that through this method one can discover one’s own states of consciousness. So far as I know, the existence of such states has never been doubted by any critic, however skeptical in other respects he may have been.”

According to Stout, “In introspection we are concerned with the nature of experience itself and with the laws of mental process. The observer in introspection is directed towards the answering of questions of theoretical importance for the advancement of our systematic knowledge of the laws and conditions of mental process.” Introspection examines inner behaviour of an individual and an individual knows about his own feelings or thoughts in a particular situation.

The Introspection method has both merits and demerits.

Merits of Introspection Method: The merits of the introspection method are given below:-

	Introspection is the easiest of all methods of educational psychology.
	It does not need any tool or laboratory as the subject and the investigator is the same.
	It is the most economical method and one which enables us to know about the mental state of an individual, i.e. his emotions and feelings.
	Introspection, as a method, has generated a lot of research and is used in almost all experimental students.

Drawbacks of Introspection Method: The drawbacks of the introspection method are given below:-

	Introspection means looking into-one’s own emotions and feelings, so when one attempts to study one’s mental state, it disappears and therefore it is different to introspect the changing psychological experiences.
	As the subject and investigator is same the introspection becomes subjective and biased and therefore the data may not be reliable and valid. The person may not consider certain facts.
	The introspection method cannot be done by abnormal individuals and children.
	A person should be highly trained and skilled to introspect properly.
	According to Kant, a famous scholar, it is not possible to accept conscious experience as the subject matter of psychology and then consider introspection as its proper method. ====================================================================================== Observation Method It is one of the oldest and most popular methods of educational psychology. It has replaced the method of introspection of self observation. The observation method is also called ‘objective observation’. According to John Dollard, “The primary research instrument would seen to be the observing human intelligence trying to make sense out of human experience.” Observation is one of the basic methods which mean that an individual’s behaviour (i.e. a person’s bodily gestures, facial expression and other bodily actions) is observed. It is accepted by psychologists that an individual’s overt behaviour is the result of his internal mental conditions. The observer makes systematic observation through recording in a natural situation. Observation can be both natural and participant. In natural observation the experimenter observes and records the behaviour of the subjects in the natural setting as has been mentioned above; here the subjects are not conscious about their behaviour being observed. In participant observation, the observer becomes a member of the group, gains the confidence of the other group members by building rapport with them, and observes their behaviour. Here also the subjects are not conscious that their behaviour is being observed. Certain principles should be followed in the observation method. They are: Observation should be made not only of the individual’s behaviour but of the whole situation. Proper planning of the observation process should be made; objectives must be clear and the proper tools for recording must be kept properly. Observer must select the appropriate number of subjects to be observed. Too many will be difficult to manage. The time limit of observation must also be fixed. Too long time may make the observer distracted and tired and if it is too short it will not yield the proper information. As observation is a systematic process, the observer must have the proper skills and aptitude and the ability to report accurately. Only then will the data be reliable. Advantages of the observation method: The observation method has certain advantages such as : It is observation of behaviour in natural setting. It is objective and therefore more reliable. It is applicable for all age groups. Observation can be done through simple tools as well as sophisticated ones like camera, tape recorder video recorder etc. Observation can be made in any situation of our day to day life. Limitations of the Observation method: The limitations of the observation method are as follows:- Data can be collected only about observable behaviour or overt behaviour. Therefore, it can be unreliable at times as the subject’s mental behaviour can be different. Personal prejudices, or in other words, subjectivity on the part of the observer can be a big drawback of this method. The observer’s own interests, values may affect the interpretation of the data to a great extent. The behaviour of the subjects may be affected by the time and place. Their behaviour may be different at different times under the same circumstances. Sometimes the observation method lacks precision, as different observers tend to interpret the data in different ways. Therefore if the data collected are expressed in quantitative measures then they can be interpreted by statistical methods. The observation method fails to establish a cause-effect relationship between the subjects’ behaviour and their surroundings. For examples delinquency may not always be caused by poverty, sometimes sound economic position of the subject can cause delinquent behaviour. Therefore it becomes difficult to draw conclusions that a particular situation can induce certain bind of behaviour in an individual.

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Interview Method

Today, for psychological researches, mainly, interview method has become very popular. In this method there is direct face to face contact between the investigator and the subject. Here the interviewer or the investigator asks questions to the subject and records the answers usually without the latter knowing it. In the words of Fred N. Kerlinger, “The interview is perhaps the ubiquitous method of obtaining information from people. It has been and is still being used in all kinds of practical situations, eg. the lawyer obtains information from his client, the physian learns about a patient; the administrative officer or professor determines the suitability of students for schools, departments and curricula. Only recently, however, interview has been used systematically for scientific purposes, both in the laboratory and in the field. He also said that it is a face to face inter-personal situation in which one person, the interviewer asks a person being interviewed, the respondent, questions designed to obtain answers pertinent to research problems” According to P.V. Young, “Interviewing is not a simple way to conversation between an interrogator and informant. Gestures, glances, facial expressions and pauses often reveal subtle feelings”

Objectives of Interview Method:

	The main objective of the interview method is to collect information about unknown fact of the subject, his inner feelings,
	Another objective is to make sure that the interviewer and the subject know each other quite well, so that the collected data is verified well,
	Interview method aims at providing an opportunity to the investigator to observe the subject very closely; as a result, at times, the subject can provide new ideas to the investigator which help the latter in research work.

Types of Interview Method:

There are different types of interview – focused interview repeated interview, clinical interview, diagnostic interview, research interview personal interview etc.

Merits of the Interview Method: The merits of the interview method are-

	High participation of the subject or respondent. The subject answers the questions in a free manner. Illiterate as well as children provide proper in-depth information as compared to other methods like observation, questionnaire method etc.
	This method is very flexible as it becomes possible for the interviewer to reframe, repeat and rephrase the questions as suitable for the subject.
	The subject’s emotions can be studied well. It is often observed that during an interview, the subject may become emotional and get excited, and may express freely his fears, anxieties, and complexes.
	Through the interview method the investigator may get to know the cause of any behaviour pattern of the subject, the historical background of each incident.
	The data collected through the interview method is reliable. The interviewer analyses and crosschecks the information provided, to find out whether the data is correct or not.
	The interview method can be applied on all types of people- literate or illiterate children and adults and at times also on mentally unbalanced persons.
	In the interview method, the subject and investigator are face to face with each other. Both discuss the problems and during discussion views can be exchanged and this is desirable in order to study every social problem along with the subject’s own problems.

Demerits of the Interview Method : The demerits of the interview methods are :-

	It is a costly method. It involves a lot of traveling on the part of the interviewer. It is also time consuming as the interviewer has to physically locate a subject.
	A lot of planning is required. The investigator has to provide a number of stimuli to get information from the subject, must make careful observation of the latter’s behaviour patterns so the interviewer must remember a number of things at the same time. So the whole process becomes too strenuous.
	The subject may not reveal his true feelings and emotions.
	Sometimes the interviewer may have preconceived notions which may not hold true during interview, but he is reluctant to change his views. P.V. Young said that biased and prior thinking may distort and invalidate the results of the whole interview.
	The interviewer’s perception of things may clash with those of the interviewee’s. Their beliefs and values may be totally different. So the Investigator must be very proficient and must have proper insight into human nature.
	There can be difficulty in persuading the subject to be interviewed. The subject may tend to be bored during the process and then the data obtained will not be valid. ============================================================================================ Experimental Method It is one of the most important and objective methods of psychology as it is very scientific. It is precise, planned, systematic, or in other words, it is observation under controlled conditions. According to J.W Best, “Experimental research is the description and analysis of what will be, or what will occur, under carefully controlled conditions”. In experiments, there is always the attempt to establish certain cause and effect relationships through carefully planned and controlled observation of the subject’s behaviour. The ‘experimental methods’ has certain characteristics. They are- In the experimental method the conditions are always controlled. It essentially requires at least two persons, the experimenter and the subject. Usually the experimental method is applied on persons in a random order. In the experimental method two different types of variables are used – (a) Independent variable like intelligence and (b) dependent variable like home or school environment, other socio-economic conditions etc. Merits of Experimental Method : The experimental method has the following merits : It is the most systematic method and the conditions can be completely controlled. The data collected can be analysed in an objective manner and so it is reliable. A cause-effect relationship of individual’s behaviour can be established. Hypothesis can be formulated and the result of the experiment can be tested keeping this in consideration. It discards subjective viewpoints. It increases the scope for further research as the result of the experimental method can be precisely recorded. Drawbacks of the Experimental Method The drawbacks of the experimental method are - As human behaviour is changeable, identical behaviour of the same individual not occur even under identical conditions at different times. Mostly experiments have been conducted on animals like cats, dogs and rats and the principles arrived at on the basis of such tests may not explain human beings. It is often difficult to conduct experiments in social sciences unlike physical sciences. The experimental method is costly and time consuming. The experimenter must have specialized skills to conduct experiments. The tools used in experiments may not be satisfactory and therefore the obtained data may not be reliable. The experimental method can produce results of probability and not certainly. Ref: http://www.kkhsou.in/main/education/psycology.html ============================================================================ How exactly do researchers investigate the human mind and behavior? While there are a number of different research techniques, the experimental method allows researchers to look at cause-and-effect relationships. In the experimental method, researchers identify and define key variables, formulate a hypothesis, manipulate the variables and collect data on the results. Extraneous variables are carefully controlled to minimize a potential impact on the outcome of the experiment.1 Experimental Method in Psychology The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis. Types of Experiments There are a few different types of experiments that researchers might choose to use. The type of experiment chosen might depend on a variety of factors including the participants, the hypothesis and the resources available to the researchers. Lab Experiments Lab experiments are very common in psychology because they allow experimenters more control over the variables. These experiments can also be easier for other researchers to replicate. The problem, of course, is that what takes place in a lab is not always identical to what takes place in the real world. Field Experiments Sometimes researchers might opt to conduct their experiments in the field. For example, let's imagine that a social psychologist is interested in researching prosocial behavior. The experimenter might have a person pretend to faint and observe to see how long it takes onlookers to respond. This type of experiment can be a great way to see behavior in action in realistic settings. However, it makes it more difficult for the researchers to control the variables and can introduce confounding variables that might influence the results.  The Basics of Prosocial Behavior Quasi-Experiments While lab experiments represent what are known as true experiments, researchers can also utilize a type known as a quasi-experiment. Field experiments can be either quasi-experiments or true experiments. Quasi-experiments are often referred to as natural experiments because the researchers do not have true control over the independent variable. Instead, the treatment level is determined by the natural conditions of the situation. A researcher looking at personality differences and birth order, for example, is not able to manipulate the independent variable in the situation. Treatment levels cannot be randomly assigned because the participants naturally fall into pre-existing groups based on their birth order in their families. So why would a researcher choose to use a quasi-experiment? This is a good choice in situations where scientists and interested in studying phenomena in natural, real-world settings. It is also a good choice in situations where researchers cannot ethically manipulate the independent variable in question. Key Terms to Know In order to understand how the experimental method works, there are some key terms you should first understand. The independent variable is the treatment that the experimenter manipulates. This variable is assumed to cause some type of effect on another variable. If a researcher was investigating how sleep influences test scores, the amount of sleep an individual gets would be the independent variable. The dependent variable is the effect that the experimenter is measuring. In our previous example, the test scores would be the dependent variable. Operational definitions are necessary in order to perform an experiment. When we say something is an independent variable or dependent variable, we need to have a very clear and specific definition of the meaning and scope of that variable. A hypothesis is a tentative statement or guesses about the possible relationship between two or more variables. In our earlier example, the researcher might hypothesize that people who get more sleep will perform better on a math test the next day. The purpose of the experiment is then to either support or fail to support this hypothesis.  How to Form a Hypothesis Statement for Psychology Research The Experimental Process Psychologists, like other scientists, utilize the scientific method when conducting an experiment. The scientific method is a set of procedures and principles that guide how scientists develop research questions, collect data and come to conclusions. The four basic steps of the process are: Forming a Hypothesis Designing a Study and Collecting Data Analyzing the Data and Reaching Conclusions Sharing the Findings =========================================================================== Wundt and Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) was a German scientist who was the first person to be referred to as a psychologist. His famous book entitled Principles of Physiological Psychology was published in 1873. Wundt viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience, and he believed that the goal of psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how those components combined to result in our conscious experience. Wundt used introspection (he called it “internal perception”), a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible, making the human mind like any other aspect of nature that a scientist observed. He believed in the notion of voluntarism—that people have free will and should know the intentions of a psychological experiment if they were participating (Danziger, 1980). Wundt considered his version experimental introspection; he used instruments such as those that measured reaction time. He also wrote Volkerpsychologie in 1904 in which he suggested that psychology should include the study of culture, as it involves the study of people. Wundt’s version of introspection used only very specific experimental conditions in which an external stimulus was designed to produce a scientifically observable (repeatable) experience of the mind (Danziger, 1980). The first stringent requirement was the use of “trained” or practiced observers, who could immediately observe and report a reaction. The second requirement was the use of repeatable stimuli that always produced the same experience in the subject and allowed the subject to expect and thus be fully attentive to the inner reaction. These experimental requirements were put in place to eliminate “interpretation” in the reporting of internal experiences and to counter the argument that there is no way to know that an individual is observing their mind or consciousness accurately, since it cannot be seen by any other person. Edward Titchener, one of his students, built upon Wundt’s ideas to develop the idea concept of structuralism. Its focus was on the contents of mental processes rather than their function (Pickren & Rutherford, 2010). Wundt established his psychology laboratory at the University at Leipzig in 1879. In this laboratory, Wundt and his students conducted experiments on, for example, reaction times. A subject, sometimes in a room isolated from the scientist, would receive a stimulus such as a light, image, or sound. The subject’s reaction to the stimulus would be to push a button, and an apparatus would record the time to reaction. Wundt could measure reaction time to one-thousandth of a second (Nicolas & Ferrand, 1999). Experimental requirements of using trained observers and repeatable stimuli were put in place to eliminate “interpretation” of the reporting of internal experiences. However, despite the efforts to train individuals in the process of introspection, this process remained highly subjective, and there was very little agreement between individuals.

Body image counseling

Body image as cognitive self-schema :

What is it? 

Body image is an internalized view of one's appearance that drives behavior and influences information processing.

Theories of internalized self-representation. 

1. Higgins' self-discrepancy theory 

The self-discrepancy theory states that individuals compare their “actual” self to internalized standards or the “ideal/ought self”. Inconsistencies between “actual”, “ideal” (idealized version of yourself created from life experiences) and “ought” (who persons feel they should be or should become) are associated with emotional discomforts (e.g., fear, threat, restlessness). Self-discrepancy is the gap between two of these self-representations that leads to negative emotions.

Developed by Edward Tory Higgins in 1987, the theory provides a platform for understanding how different types of discrepancies between representations of the self are related to different kinds of emotional vulnerabilities. Higgins sought to illustrate that internal disagreement causes emotional and psychological turmoil.

2. Heider 's balance theory

Fritz Heider originated Balance Theory to show how people develop their relationships with other people and with things in their environment. Balance Theory says that if people see a set of cognitive elements as being a system, then they will have a preference to maintain a balanced state among these elements. In other words, if we feel we are 'out of balance', then we are motivated to restore a position of balance. The felt discomfort at imbalance will increase with the strength of the attitude and the overall interest in the matter. Analytically, Balance Theory can be described as follows: P: the a person to analyse O: A comparison person (O) X: A comparison 'thing', such as a impersonal entity, which could be a physical object, an idea or an event. This may also be a third person.  3. Cognitive dissonance theory  Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and behavior in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance). ... When there is an inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors (dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance.  The importance of the cognitions; things that involve beliefs that are highly valued typically result in stronger dissonance. The ratio between dissonant (clashing) thoughts and consonant (harmonious) thoughts. The greater the strength of the dissonance, the more pressure there is to relieve the feelings of discomfort. Why is it important to think about how cognitive dissonance relates to your own health and wellness? Because the mental or emotional distress it can cause can definitely affect your health and well-being. The intensity of the discomfort that comes from cognitive dissonance depends somewhat on personality. People who are flexible enough to adjust their thoughts or live with “gray areas” may not have a strong response when they notice the discrepancies. “Some people may experience it more intensely or frequently if they have a high need for consistency in their lives,” Dr. Leikam says. And recognizing and addressing those negative thoughts or emotions is important. Why Recognizing Cognitive Dissonance Can Be Helpful The discomfort, tension, shame, and anxiety that can come with cognitive dissonance are all negative feelings you’d probably like to avoid. But cognitive dissonance in and of itself doesn’t have to be a bad thing, or only cause distress. It can have a positive effect, too, if it leads to increased self-awareness that can help you grow, Johnson says. Being aware of cognitive dissonance when you experience it can push you to change whatever behaviors aren’t consistent with who you’d like to be. Let’s say it’s a particularly cold and dreary month of the year and someone who typically sees herself as a social butterfly finds herself spending a lot of evenings in, alone. Recognizing that that behavior doesn’t fit her personality might lead her to realize that she might overall be happier if she made more of an effort to reach out to friends or make plans to be more social in her free time. As a result of changing her behavior to fit what she believes makes her happy, she might actually become happier, Leikam says. Alternatively, maybe resolving that dissonance means that she recognizes she’s more introverted than she thought she was, and enjoys that alone time. As a result she might start to feel grateful for and happy about those nights in, rather than beat herself up for being “lazy” or not sociable enough.

Semantic differential scale 
Semantic is also known as intrinsic meaning. In a programmatic language: Syntax is like having the words in a sentence in the right order. whereas Semantics is like having the sentences in a paragraph in the right order.
Semantic Differential (SD) is a type of a rating scale designed to measure the connotative meaning of objects, events, and concepts. The connotations are used to derive the attitude towards the given object, event or concept.

Pioneered by Charles Osgood in 1952, semantic differential scales are a popular technique for measuring people’s attitudes toward nearly anything. Semantic differential scales use a standardized set of bipolar adjectives (see Figure 1) on which research participants rate an issue or object. This simple procedure confers a variety of benefits, both for researchers and study participants.

Through a series of statistical analyses, Osgood identified three recurring, stable dimensions on which people can judge nearly anything (see Table 1): (a) evaluative, focused on the value of the object (e.g., good/bad); (2) potency or power of an object (e.g., strong/weak); and (3) activity or movement of an object (e.g., slow/fast). To use a semantic differential scale, research participants respond to several bipolar adjectives designed to measure each dimension ...

Data collection types

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Sampling techniques

Probability Sampling Methods

1. Simple random sampling

In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has an equal chance, or probability, of being selected. One way of obtaining a random sample is to give each individual in a population a number, and then use a table of random numbers to decide which individuals to include.1 For example, if you have a sampling frame of 1000 individuals, labelled 0 to 999, use groups of three digits from the random number table to pick your sample. So, if the first three numbers from the random number table were 094, select the individual labelled “94”, and so on.

As with all probability sampling methods, simple random sampling allows the sampling error to be calculated and reduces selection bias. A specific advantage is that it is the most straightforward method of probability sampling. A disadvantage of simple random sampling is that you may not select enough individuals with your characteristic of interest, especially if that characteristic is uncommon. It may also be difficult to define a complete sampling frame and inconvenient to contact them, especially if different forms of contact are required (email, phone, post) and your sample units are scattered over a wide geographical area.
 

2. Systematic sampling

Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The intervals are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample size n from a population of size x, you should select every x/nth individual for the sample.  For example, if you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population of 1000, select every 1000/100 = 10th member of the sampling frame.

Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random sampling, and it is easy to administer. However, it may also lead to bias, for example if there are underlying patterns in the order of the individuals in the sampling frame, such that the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the underlying pattern. As a hypothetical example, if a group of students were being sampled to gain their opinions on college facilities, but the Student Record Department’s central list of all students was arranged such that the sex of students alternated between male and female, choosing an even interval (e.g. every 20th student) would result in a sample of all males or all females. Whilst in this example the bias is obvious and should be easily corrected, this may not always be the case.
 

3. Stratified sampling

In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all share a similar characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary between the different subgroups, and we want to ensure representation from all the subgroups. For example, in a study of stroke outcomes, we may stratify the population by sex, to ensure equal representation of men and women. The study sample is then obtained by taking equal sample sizes from each stratum. In stratified sampling, it may also be appropriate to choose non-equal sample sizes from each stratum. For example, in a study of the health outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if there are three hospitals each with different numbers of nursing staff (hospital A has 500 nurses, hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it would be appropriate to choose the sample numbers from each hospital proportionally (e.g. 10 from hospital A, 20 from hospital B and 40 from hospital C). This ensures a more realistic and accurate estimation of the health outcomes of nurses across the county, whereas simple random sampling would over-represent nurses from hospitals A and B. The fact that the sample was stratified should be taken into account at the analysis stage.

Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of the results by reducing sampling bias. However, it requires knowledge of the appropriate characteristics of the sampling frame (the details of which are not always available), and it can be difficult to decide which characteristic(s) to stratify by.
 

4. Clustered sampling

In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the sampling unit, rather than individuals. The population is divided into subgroups, known as clusters, which are randomly selected to be included in the study. Clusters are usually already defined, for example individual GP practices or towns could be identified as clusters. In single-stage cluster sampling, all members of the chosen clusters are then included in the study. In two-stage cluster sampling, a selection of individuals from each cluster is then randomly selected for inclusion. Clustering should be taken into account in the analysis. The General Household survey, which is undertaken annually in England, is a good example of a (one-stage) cluster sample. All members of the selected households (clusters) are included in the survey.1

Cluster sampling can be more efficient that simple random sampling, especially where a study takes place over a wide geographical region. For instance, it is easier to contact lots of individuals in a few GP practices than a few individuals in many different GP practices. Disadvantages include an increased risk of bias, if the chosen clusters are not representative of the population, resulting in an increased sampling error.
 

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

1. Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because participants are selected based on availability and willingness to take part. Useful results can be obtained, but the results are prone to significant bias, because those who volunteer to take part may be different from those who choose not to (volunteer bias), and the sample may not be representative of other characteristics, such as age or sex. Note: volunteer bias is a risk of all non-probability sampling methods.
 

2. Quota sampling

This method of sampling is often used by market researchers. Interviewers are given a quota of subjects of a specified type to attempt to recruit. For example, an interviewer might be told to go out and select 20 adult men, 20 adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could interview them about their television viewing. Ideally the quotas chosen would proportionally represent the characteristics of the underlying population.

Whilst this has the advantage of being relatively straightforward and potentially representative, the chosen sample may not be representative of other characteristics that weren’t considered (a consequence of the non-random nature of sampling). 2
 

3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling

Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies on the judgement of the researcher when choosing who to ask to participate. Researchers may implicitly thus choose a “representative” sample to suit their needs, or specifically approach individuals with certain characteristics. This approach is often used by the media when canvassing the public for opinions and in qualitative research.

Judgement sampling has the advantage of being time-and cost-effective to perform whilst resulting in a range of responses (particularly useful in qualitative research). However, in addition to volunteer bias, it is also prone to errors of judgement by the researcher and the findings, whilst being potentially broad, will not necessarily be representative.
 

4. Snowball sampling

This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard-to-reach groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them, so the sample increases in size like a rolling snowball. For example, when carrying out a survey of risk behaviours amongst intravenous drug users, participants may be asked to nominate other users to be interviewed.

Snowball sampling can be effective when a sampling frame is difficult to identify. However, by selecting friends and acquaintances of subjects already investigated, there is a significant risk of selection bias (choosing a large number of people with similar characteristics or views to the initial individual identified).
 

Bias in sampling

There are five important potential sources of bias that should be considered when selecting a sample, irrespective of the method used. Sampling bias may be introduced when:1

1. Any pre-agreed sampling rules are deviated from
2. People in hard-to-reach groups are omitted
3. Selected individuals are replaced with others, for example if they are difficult to contact
4. There are low response rates
5. An out-of-date list is used as the sample frame (for example, if it excludes people who have recently moved to an area)

Reference: https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/research-methods/1a-epidemiology/methods-of-sampling-population

Study skills for LD children

LD students are those who demonstrate a significant discrepancy, which is not the result of some other handicap, between academic achievement and intellectual abilities in one or more of the areas of oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skills, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation, mathematics reasoning, or spelling.

Following is a list of some of the common indicators of learning disabled students. These traits are usually not isolated ones; rather, they appear in varying degrees and amounts in most learning disabled students. A learning disabled student …

Has poor auditory memory—both short term and long term.

Has a low tolerance level and a high frustration level.

Has a weak or poor self-esteem.

Is easily distractible.

Finds it difficult, if not impossible, to stay on task for extended periods of time.

Is spontaneous in expression; often cannot control emotions.

Is easily confused.

Is verbally demanding.

Has some difficulty in working with others in small or large group settings.

Has difficulty in following complicated directions or remembering directions for extended periods of time.

Has coordination problems with both large and small muscle groups.

Has inflexibility of thought; is difficult to persuade otherwise.

Has poor handwriting skills.

Has a poor concept of time.

Teaching learning disabled youngsters will present you with some unique and distinctive challenges. Not only will these students demand more of your time and patience; so, too, will they require specialized instructional strategies in a structured environment that supports and enhances their learning potential. It is important to remember that learning disabled students are not students who are incapacitated or unable to learn; rather, they need differentiated instruction tailored to their distinctive learning abilities. Use these appropriate strategies with learning disabled students:

Provide oral instruction for students with reading disabilities. Present tests and reading materials in an oral format so the assessment is not unduly influenced by lack of reading ability.

Provide learning disabled students with frequent progress checks. Let them know how well they are progressing toward an individual or class goal.

Give immediate feedback to learning disabled students. They need to see quickly the relationship between what was taught and what was learned.

Make activities concise and short, whenever possible. Long, drawn-out projects are particularly frustrating for a learning disabled child.

Learning disabled youngsters have difficulty learning abstract terms and concepts. Whenever possible, provide them with concrete objects and events—items they can touch, hear, smell, etc.

Learning disabled students need and should get lots of specific praise. Instead of just saying, “You did well,” or “I like your work,” be sure you provide specific praising comments that link the activity directly with the recognition; for example, “I was particularly pleased by the way in which you organized the rock collection for Karin and Miranda.”

When necessary, plan to repeat instructions or offer information in both written and verbal formats. Again, it is vitally necessary that learning disabled children utilize as many of their sensory modalities as possible.

Encourage cooperative learning activities (see Teaching with Cooperative Learning) when possible. Invite students of varying abilities to work together on a specific project or toward a common goal. Create an atmosphere in which a true “community of learners” is facilitated and enhanced.




STUDY SKILLS
What are study skills?

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Study skills instruction gives students the tools, the training, and the readiness to do a good job in school. The more adept students are with reading, writing, speaking and study skills, the more efficient and thorough they will be at getting the job of learning done.



"Metacognition" is a popular term to describe the learning process. It means transcending cognition, or more simply put, thinking about thinking. Study skills instruction develops a metacognitive approach to school; it helps them learn how to learn. Students need to go beyond simply completing an assignment. They need to be aware of the process they follow and the steps they take when pre-reading a textbook, taking notes, or answering an essay question.

When should study skills be taught?

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Study skills instruction can begin as early as the elementary grades with organization skills and main idea skills. By fifth grade, students can begin to learn note taking strategies and basic textbook skills. Advanced note taking, summarizing, textbook, test preparation and report writing should be emphasized in middle school, and then practiced in high school. As students progress through the grades, they must develop a new set of skills to cope with greater demands: the higher the grade, the greater the need for study skills to cope with those demands.

SQ3R is a reading comprehension method named for its five steps: survey, question, read, retrieve, and review. The method was introduced by Francis P. Robinson, an American education philosopher in his 1946 book Effective Study.





1. Survey

First, you take a few minutes to scan the entire text. Pay attention to layout, chapters, sections, graphs, pictures, words in bold and italics. In general, these provide important information about the contents of the text. By quickly scanning through the text first, you create an overview and structure. This serves as the foundation for the active reading and understanding of the text.



2. Question

Ask yourself questions about the text that you scanned during the previous step. You can for instance turn the chapter titles into questions. Write down the questions. Ask yourself what you already know about the topic and what your goal is for reading the text. Try to understand what it is that the author wants to convey. You can use the left margin to write down your questions about the text in a structured way. At a later stage, you can note down the answers in the right margin.



3. Read

Read the text while keeping the structure from step 1, “S” and the questions from step 2, “Q” in the back of your mind. Pay attention to chapters, sentences printed in bold, explanations under graphs and images. Read ‘actively’, write down (additional) questions while you are reading and try to find answers to previously asked questions. Write down answers and explanations in the right margin of the text. Take your time for the more complicated parts of the text and read it again if you need to. Give less attention to unimportant information. Reread per part and repeat these parts to yourself in your own words.



4. Recite

Repeat (aloud) in your own words what you have read. Ask yourself questions about the text. Explain what you have read to someone else, you can also do this in your imagination. Making a summary in your own words provides extra support.



5. Review

Read all the relevant parts of the text again, look at your notes. Possibly improve on your notes, paying extra attention to the parts you found difficult. Read your own questions on the left side of the text (cover the answers on the right) and try to answer them. This step is the most effective if you do it a day after step 1 through 4. After following these five steps, you will have actively read a text and you will be better able to remember and explain what it is about



A fourth R, SQ4R, is sometimes added to the reading method. The fourth R can mean different things, for instance Relate, Record or Reflect. This addition can help you to for example create links to knowledge that you already have or personal experiences (Relate). The with Record version is a more extensive version for making the summary and applying structure in the text.



You can for instance record the structure of the text in a schematic representation or highlight the most important parts of the text. The R for Reflect stands for discussing the theme with others, asking yourself what the topic means to you, finding examples or events that clarify the topic. The advantage of the SQ3R Method is that you decide what is in it. It provides a foundation for you to use your own (learning) goals, in order to make it work for you.





REAP



Students must assimilate the information read into their own schemata to facilitate long-term memory. Isolated and unconnected pieces of information easily fade from memory, but postreading activities provide the glue to make a cohesive picture of what is read. Read-Encode-Annotate-Ponder,

REAP, is one of the most basic ways to facilitate higher-order thinking through reading, writing, and thinking.



Read-Encode-Annotate-Ponder (REAP)



REAP is designed to improve thinking, the underlying musculature for active reading and meaningful writing. The idea for this reader-writer exchange system was proposed some time ago (Manzo, 1975) as a means of improving and supporting a national content area reading and writing

project essentially for urban schools. Shortly afterwards it was collected into a teaching-learning approach called REAP—Read-Encode-AnnotatePonder (Eanet & Manzo, 1976; Eanet, 1978, 1983).



The REAP system for responding to text has been in use in elementary through college classrooms for two decades. It is based on a scaffold form of writing that invites creativity, much as does haiku, or any other disciplined form of art (Manzo, Manzo, & Albee, 2002).



REAP primarily is a cognitive-enrichment approach that teaches students to think more precisely and deeply about what they read, by following

the four-step strategy symbolized by its title:



READ to get the writer’s basic message;



ENCODE the message into your own words while reading;



ANNOTATE your analysis of the message by writing responses

from several perspectives, and;



PONDER what you have read and written—first by reviewing

it yourself, then by sharing and discussing it with

others, and finally by reading and discussing the

responses of others.



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SEMANTIC  MAP

Semantic mapping is a visual strategy for vocabulary expansion and  extension of knowledge by  displaying in categories words related  to one another" (Kholi, & Sharifafar, 2013). These almost graphic organizers are not pre-made, but made by the students to help "web" out their ideas. Semantic maps go beyond just a graphic organizer. Their strength is  “an adaptation of concept definition mapping but [it] builds on students’ background knowledge or schema. While drawing on prior knowledge, it recognizes important components and shows the relationships among them" (Kholi, & Sharifafar, 2013). This building on previous knowledge is extremely important for their development of vocabulary. It's been well documented by researches that “Instructional activities that allow for a visual display of words and promote students' comparing and contrasting of new words to known words can be a beneficial means for increasing their vocabulary knowledge" (Rupley, Logan, & Nichols, 1998).

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