1. Trait And Type Theories Of Personality2. Uses Of Personality Test In Clinical, Education And Industrial Settings.3. Orientation About Scales Of Measurement To Assess Personality4. Characteristics Of Good Instrument Measuring Personality5. Profile Matching Statistical Models
Personality is the strong determinant of individual's behaviour. Therefore, understanding different principles of personality profile similarity is important for various activities like counselling, therapy, selection, training, placement and even analyzing one's economic behaviour.
Before going to understand personality profile similarity, it is important to understand the trait and type theories of personality.
Trait theory
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association, Personality traits are enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts. This definition assumes that (a) traits are relatively stable over time, (b) traits differ among individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing while others are shy), and (c) traits influence behavior.
Trait theorists do not assume that some people have a trait and others do not rather, they propose that all people possess certain traits, but that the degree to which a given trait applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified. For example one can find differences in outgoing behavior among a set of individuals.
Gordon Allport assumed three categories of personality traits - cardinal, central and secondary. Cardinal trait is a single that directs most of a person's activities. For example, a totally selfless woman might direct all her energies toward humanitarian activities.
| Gordon Allport |
Allport suggested different ways to assess individual's personality like open ended interviews, attitude to life, their short and long term goals, beliefs, studying letters and diaries as well as other written material belonging to person. His approach is favored by the case study method and ideographic approach to assess personality.
Allport is often criticized by Nomothethic theories. Nomothetic theorists assume that Allport's approach is oversimplified. If two people are aggressive, can we assume that two people are equally aggressive ? Possibly not. Aggression may be very different and be exhibited in different ways, at different times and for different reasons.
| Cattell |
Cattell found that 16 source traits represented the dimensions of personality. Using these source traits, he developed sixteen personality factor questionnaire or 16PF, a measure that provides scoresfor each of the source traits.
| Eysenck |
Eysenck found that personality could be described in terms of just two major dimensions: introversion-extraversion and neurotic-stability. At one extreme of the introversion-extraversion dimension are the introverts and at the other extreme are extroverts. Independently of this dimension, people can be rated as neurotic versus stable. Eysenck constructed one questionnaire known as Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.
The questionnaire includes two options (yes/No) that can not do justice to predict the complex and changeable nature of human personality. So, findings of the questionnaire must be interpreted cautiously. Eysenck's two personality traits - extraversion and neuroticism were accepted by the researchers of Big-five personality. Big-five researchers proposed five personality traits - openness to experience, neuroticism, conscientiousness, extraversion and agreeableness.
Description of NEO
NEO inventories
are concise measure of five major dimensions or domains of personality. It
comprises a series of closely related instruments developed over a period of 30
years from the original inventory, a measure of 18 traits grouped into the
domains of Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), and openness to experience (O).
Since 1985, the inventories included measures of two other basic dimensions of
personality, Agreeableness (A) and Conscientiousness (C). Each domain includes
6 more specific traits. The inventory measures differences in personality
traits. It is not a test of intelligence or ability and is not intended to
diagnose psychiatric disorders. It gives some idea about what makes one unique
in ways of thinking, feeling and interacting with others.
N-domain
Traits in the N-domain reflect different
ways of reacting emotionally to distressing circumstances. Low scorers are
resilent, rarely experiencing negative emotions. High scorers are anxious,
generally apprehensive and prone to worry.
E-domain
The E-domain measures traits related to
energy and enthusiasm, especially when dealing with people. Low scorers are
outgoing and extraverts.
O-domain
Low scorers in this domain are
down-to-earth and conventional; they prefer the familiar and the tried and
true. High scorers are imaginative and openminded.
A-domain
This domain is concerned with styles of
interpersonal interaction. Low scorers are hard-headed and competitive; high
scorers are compassionate and co-operative.
C-domain
Traits in the domain describe
differences in motivation and persistence. Low scorers are easygoing and not
inclined to make plans or schedules. High scorers are conscientious and well
organized. They are rational, prudent, practical, resourceful and well
prepared.
Assessment(adult)
1. Score 60-items NEO (adult version)
2. Assign the data in MS-excel sheet frm col. B
3. Reverse data according to manual
4. Compute total score in the following ways:
Neuroticism: =(B2+G2+L2+Q2+V2+AA2+AF2+AK2+
| Neuroticism |
=C2+H2+M2+R2+W2+AB2+AG2+AL2+
| Openness |
=D2+I2+N2+S2+X2+AC2+AH2+AM2+
| Aggreableness |
=E2+J2+O2+T2+Y2+AD2+AI2+AN2+
| Conscientious |
=F2+K2+P2+U2+Z2+AE2+AJ2+AO2+
5. Transform raw score into T-score according to the manusal
6. Estimate percentile position of each variable and interpret data according to the manual.
Comparison
between Western and Indian Study on NEO
McCrae and Costa (N=500)
|
Current study (N=105)*
|
|||
Variable
|
Mean
|
S.D.
|
Mean
|
S.D.
|
Neuroticism
|
23.3
|
7.3
|
36.49
|
5.09
|
Extraversion
|
29.7
|
6.3
|
39.55
|
5.93
|
Openmindedness
|
29.1
|
6.8
|
41.27
|
4.68
|
Aggreeableness
|
28.2
|
5.8
|
38.48
|
4.63
|
Conscientious
|
27.9
|
6.8
|
45.23
|
5.86
|
Type theory:
It includes categorizing people in terms of distinct features. For example, he is extraverted or introverted. It follows principles of all or none. Either he is extraverted or none. It does not consider extent of variation. It follows oversimplified principle. It is often called as conglomeration of set of personality traits. For example, If Sundarajan is extraverted, he is outgoing, talkative, social etc.
USES OF PERSONALITY TESTS
Since personality traits are found as determinants of behaviour, researchers tend to relate personality traits in different settings like clinical, education and industrial settings.
Clinical settings include psychiatric hospitals, community mental health centres. Principal purpose of the psychological assessment is to help diagnose and classify individuals' emotional or behavioural problems. This type of information is very useful in determining the efficient treatment strategies.
Counselling settings include educational institutions, rehabilitation centers and a variety of industrial settings. In counselling settings, counselling psychologists work to help individuals cope with and adjust more effectively to problems in their daily life (e.g., loneliness, job dissatisfaction etc.).
Legal settings include courtrooms, prisons and law enforcement agencies. Information from personality tests is used as evidence in judicial proceedings to help determine whether a person is same and can be held responsible for criminal actions or whether an inmate is ready for probation.Personality tests also are used for selection of jury members.
Guidance settings are the high schools, colleges and vocational guidance centers. Personality assessment helps individuals to make educational and vocational decisions.
PROFILE SIMILARITY
Personality trait theory suggests that each individual possesses trait to a various extent. Possession of the different extent of trait helps in understanding profile similarity. One's different parameters of personality trait can be assumed as one's profile of personality traits. One's personality may be conveged with other individual or the group he belongs to due to role learning. Similarly, one can be diverged from other group. This convergence and divergence is important for career counselling, therapy, selection, training and placement. Norm represents group profile so one's close and distance association from the norm gives idea about classification of individual. This approach is called normative approach.
Normative model
a) Individual VS individual
b) Individual VS group
c) Group VS group
Besides norm, one can use facet theory in assessing personality profile similarity. The widely used facet theory states that every analytical object can be decomposed into certain number of distinct dimensions or facets. Combination of different facets is called structure. The structure is the realization of possible linear combinations of facets.
Structural approach
a) Principal component analysis or factor analysis
b) Correspondence analysis
c) Cluster analysis
When the measurement scales are metric, it is better to use principal component analysis. When it is categorical in nature, correspondence analysis is useful. Cluster analysis is also useful to determine the outlier.
Predictive approach
Predictive model suggests that success in occupation depends on set of criteria. So one's association with the criterion is most important.
a) Discriminant function analysis
Correlation approach
a) Spearman rank order correlation
b)
Geometric distance approach
a) Cluster analysis
Multivariate
ANOVA approach
Factor analytic approach
Predictive model
a) Relation between individual/group profile and criterion variable
b) Discriminant function analysis
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