Lecture notes on Intelligence Testing

D. Dutta Roy
Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India

In performing art therapy, knowledge about intelligence is important to get insight about screening, prognosis and selection of different therapeautic modules. The well accepted definition of intelligence is given below:


Spearman (1904) : a general ability that involves mainly the education of relations and correlates.


Binet and Simon (1905): the ability to judge well, to understand well, to reason well.


Thurstone (1921): the capacity to inhibit instinctive adjustments, flexibly imagine different responses, and realize modified instinctive adjustments into overt behaviour.


Wechsler (1939): the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment.


Sternberg (1986): the mental capacity to automatize information processing and to emit contextually appropriate behaviour in response to novelty: intelligence also includes metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components.


Gardner (1986): the ability or skill to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued within one or more cultural settings.

Theories of intelligence

Two factor theories: Charles Spearman (1927) proposed that intelligence consisted of two kinds of factors: a single general factor and numerous specific factors and so on. He believed that individual differences in g were most directly reflected in the ability to use three principles of cognition: apprehension of experience, education of relations, and education of correlations. A simple example is Hammer : nail :: screwdriver : ?
To solve the problem, one must have prior experience of hammer, nail and screwdriver (apprehension of experience), the ability to establish relations between the objects and finally the correlation among three things. These three will find out right answer, i.e., screw. Primary abilities: Thurstone (1931) proposed several primary abilities. They can be grouped into seven abilities as verbal comprehension, word fluency, number, space, associative memory, perceptual speed and inductive reasoning.

1. verbal comprehension: it involves reading comprehension and verbal analogies;
2. word fluency: it includes anagram or quickly naming words in a given category;
3. number: it includes speed and accuracy of simple arithmetic computation;
4. space: it is the ability to visualize how a three-dimensional object would appear if it was rotated or partially disassembled;
5. associative memory: it includes learning to associate pairs of unrelated items;
6. perceptual speed : it involves checking for similarities and differences in visual details;
7. inductive reasoning: it involves finding a rule, as in a number series completion test.

Adaptation theory: Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980) was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers on the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children. Piaget was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a theory of cognitive child development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities. Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. He through his cognitive development theory postulated following points:

1. children's thought is qualitatively different from adult's thought: Conservation concept of child differs from adult. Conservation refers to the awareness that physical quantities do not change in amount when they are superficially altered in appearance.
2. schemas are the primary basis for gaining new knowledge about the world;there are four stages of cognitive development. These are 

•  Sensorimotor 0 - 2 yrs. 
• Preoperational 2 - 7 yrs.
• Concrete Operational: 7 – 11 yrs.
• Formal Operational: 11yrs +

Schema: To Piaget, schema is an organized pattern of behaviour or a well-defined mental structure that leads to knowing how to do something. Young infants possess schemas that are mainly sensorimotor in nature. such as the grasp-and-pull schema that allows a baby to retrieve a desired object and bring it up to the mouth.As we grow older, we add mental structures to our collection of sensorimotor schemas. For example, teeenagers usually possess the alphabeitizing schema that permits them to find a word in a dictionary. Schemas evolve toward greater levels of complexity by the process of equilibration.

Equilibration: It has three concepts as assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium

• Assimilation: It is the application of a schema to an object, person or event. Infant uses grasp-and-pull schema to retrieve a baby rattle and bring it to the mouth. 
• Accommodation: The above schema is modified and become the grasp-and-pull-and-turn schema. 
• Equilibrium: it is the success of schema application. Success leads to state of equilibrium.

Sternberg (1996) is proposing that certain mental mechanisms are required for intelligent behaviour, he also emphasized that intelligence involves adaptation to the real-world environment. His theory emphasizes what he calls successful intelligence or " the ability to adapt to, shape, and select environments to accomplish one's goals and those of one's society and culture". His theory is called triarchic (ruled by three) because it deals with three aspects of intelligence; componential intelligence, experiential intelligence and contextual intelligence. 

Componential intelligence:

• metacomponents or executive processes: planning 
• perfomance components : short term memory and syllogistic reasoning
• knowledge acquisition components: ability to acquire vocabulary words.

Experiential intelligence:   

• ability to deal with novelty
• ability to automatize information processing

Contextual intelligence:

• adaptation to real world environment
• selection of suitable environment

ASSESSMENT OF INFANT ABILITY

1. Gesell developmental schedule:  Gesell Developmental Schedules are a gauge of the status of a child's motor and language development and personal-social and adaptive behaviors.

Useful links: http://www.gesellinstitute.org/pdf/GesellSchedules.pdf

1. Neonatal Behavioral assessment scale
2. Ordinals scales of psychological development
3. Bayley scales of infant development-II

ASSESSMENT OF PRESCHOOL INTELLIGENCE

1. Wechsler Preschool and Primary scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-R)
2. Stanford-Binet : Fourth edition
3. Kaufman assessment battery for children
4. McCarthy scales of Children's abilities

Personality profile similarity

1. Trait And Type Theories Of Personality2. Uses Of Personality Test In Clinical, Education And Industrial Settings.3. Orientation About Scales Of Measurement To Assess Personality4. Characteristics Of Good Instrument Measuring Personality5. Profile Matching Statistical Models

Personality is the strong determinant of individual's behaviour. Therefore, understanding different principles of personality profile similarity is important for various activities like counselling, therapy, selection, training, placement and even analyzing one's economic behaviour.

Before going to understand personality profile similarity, it is important to understand the trait and type theories of personality.

Trait theory
 
 According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association, Personality traits are enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts. This definition assumes that (a) traits are relatively stable over time, (b) traits differ among individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing while others are shy), and (c) traits influence behavior.

Trait theorists do not assume that some people have a trait and others do not rather, they propose that all people possess certain traits, but that the degree to which a given trait applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified. For example one can find differences in outgoing behavior among a set of individuals.

Gordon Allport assumed three categories of personality traits - cardinal, central and secondary. Cardinal trait is a single that directs most of a person's activities. For example, a totally selfless woman might direct all her energies toward humanitarian activities.

Gordon Allport

  But most people do not develop all encompassing cardinal traits. Instead, they possess a handful of central traits that make up the core of the of their personality for example honesty and sociability. Finally, secondary traits are characteristics that affect behavior in fewer situations and are less influential than central or cardinal traits. For example, a preference for ice cream or disliking modern art can be considered as secondary trait.

Allport suggested different ways to assess individual's personality like open ended interviews, attitude to life, their short and long term goals, beliefs, studying letters and diaries as well as other written material belonging to person. His approach is favored by the case study method and ideographic approach to assess personality.
  Allport is often criticized by Nomothethic theories. Nomothetic theorists assume that Allport's approach is oversimplified. If two people are aggressive, can we assume that two people are equally aggressive ? Possibly not. Aggression may be very different and be exhibited in different ways, at different times and for different reasons.

Cattell

Cattell and Eysenck attempted to identify primary traits of personality through a statistical technique known as factor analysis. Factor analysis is a method of summarizing the relationships among large number of variables into fewer, more general patterns. But they noted different traits possibly following different types of factor analysis. Cattell used oblique and Eysenck used varimax rotation.
Cattell found that 16 source traits represented the dimensions of personality. Using these source traits, he developed sixteen personality factor questionnaire or 16PF, a measure that provides scoresfor each of the source traits.

Eysenck

    Eysenck found that personality could be described in terms of just two major dimensions: introversion-extraversion and neurotic-stability. At one extreme of the introversion-extraversion dimension are the introverts and at the other extreme are extroverts. Independently of this dimension, people can be rated as neurotic versus stable. Eysenck constructed one questionnaire known as Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.



The questionnaire includes two options (yes/No) that can not do justice to predict the  complex and changeable nature of human personality. So, findings of the questionnaire must be interpreted cautiously. Eysenck's two personality traits - extraversion and neuroticism were accepted by the researchers of Big-five personality. Big-five researchers proposed five personality traits - openness to experience, neuroticism, conscientiousness, extraversion and agreeableness.

Description of NEO

NEO inventories are concise measure of five major dimensions or domains of personality. It comprises a series of closely related instruments developed over a period of 30 years from the original inventory, a measure of 18 traits grouped into the domains of Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), and openness to experience (O). Since 1985, the inventories included measures of two other basic dimensions of personality, Agreeableness (A) and Conscientiousness (C). Each domain includes 6 more specific traits. The inventory measures differences in personality traits. It is not a test of intelligence or ability and is not intended to diagnose psychiatric disorders. It gives some idea about what makes one unique in ways of thinking, feeling and interacting with others.

N-domain

Traits in the N-domain reflect different ways of reacting emotionally to distressing circumstances. Low scorers are resilent, rarely experiencing negative emotions. High scorers are anxious, generally apprehensive and prone to worry.

E-domain

The E-domain measures traits related to energy and enthusiasm, especially when dealing with people. Low scorers are outgoing and extraverts.

O-domain

Low scorers in this domain are down-to-earth and conventional; they prefer the familiar and the tried and true. High scorers are imaginative and openminded.

A-domain

This domain is concerned with styles of interpersonal interaction. Low scorers are hard-headed and competitive; high scorers are compassionate and co-operative.

C-domain

Traits in the domain describe differences in motivation and persistence. Low scorers are easygoing and not inclined to make plans or schedules. High scorers are conscientious and well organized. They are rational, prudent, practical, resourceful and well prepared.

Assessment(adult)

1. Score 60-items NEO (adult version)
2. Assign the data in  MS-excel sheet frm col. B
3. Reverse data according to manual
4. Compute total score in the following ways:

Neuroticism: =(B2+G2+L2+Q2+V2+AA2+AF2+AK2+AP2+AU2+AZ2+BE2)

Neuroticism

=C2+H2+M2+R2+W2+AB2+AG2+AL2+AQ2+AV2+BA2+BF2

Openness

=D2+I2+N2+S2+X2+AC2+AH2+AM2+AR2+AW2+BB2+BG2

Aggreableness

=E2+J2+O2+T2+Y2+AD2+AI2+AN2+AS2+AX2+BC2+BH2

Conscientious

=F2+K2+P2+U2+Z2+AE2+AJ2+AO2+AT2+AY2+BD2+BI2

5. Transform raw score into T-score according to the manusal

6. Estimate percentile position of each variable and interpret data according to the manual.

Comparison between Western and Indian Study on NEO

	McCrae and Costa (N=500)		Current study (N=105)*
Variable	Mean	S.D.	Mean	S.D.
Neuroticism	23.3	7.3	36.49	5.09
Extraversion	29.7	6.3	39.55	5.93
Openmindedness	29.1	6.8	41.27	4.68
Aggreeableness	28.2	5.8	38.48	4.63
Conscientious	27.9	6.8	45.23	5.86

* Conducted on adult by D. Dutta Roy

Type theory:
It includes categorizing people in terms of distinct features. For example, he is extraverted or introverted. It follows principles of all or none. Either he is extraverted or none. It does not consider extent of variation. It follows oversimplified principle. It is often called as conglomeration of set of personality traits. For example, If Sundarajan is extraverted, he is outgoing, talkative, social etc.

USES OF PERSONALITY TESTS

Since personality traits are found as determinants of behaviour, researchers tend to relate personality traits in different settings like clinical, education and industrial settings.

Clinical settings include psychiatric hospitals,  community mental health centres. Principal purpose of the psychological assessment is to help diagnose and classify individuals' emotional or behavioural problems. This type of information is very useful in determining the efficient treatment strategies.
 
Counselling settings include educational institutions, rehabilitation centers and a variety of industrial settings. In counselling settings, counselling psychologists work to help individuals cope with and adjust more effectively to problems in their daily life (e.g., loneliness, job dissatisfaction etc.).

Legal settings include courtrooms, prisons and law enforcement agencies. Information from personality tests is used as evidence in judicial proceedings to help determine whether a person is same and can be held responsible for criminal actions or whether an inmate is ready for probation.Personality tests also are used for selection of jury members.

Guidance settings are the high schools, colleges and vocational guidance centers. Personality assessment helps individuals to make educational and vocational decisions.


PROFILE SIMILARITY

Personality trait theory suggests that each individual possesses trait to a various extent. Possession of the different extent of trait helps in understanding profile similarity. One's different parameters of personality trait can be assumed as one's profile of personality traits. One's personality may be conveged with other individual or the group he belongs to due to role learning. Similarly, one can be diverged from other group. This convergence and divergence is important for career counselling, therapy, selection, training and placement. Norm represents group profile so one's close and distance association from the norm gives idea about classification of individual. This approach is called normative approach.


Normative model
a) Individual VS individual
b) Individual VS group
c) Group VS group

Besides norm, one can use facet theory in assessing personality profile similarity.  The widely used facet theory states that every analytical object can be decomposed into certain number of distinct dimensions or facets. Combination of different facets is called structure. The structure is the realization of possible linear combinations of facets.


Structural approach
a) Principal component analysis or factor analysis
b) Correspondence analysis
c) Cluster analysis

When the measurement scales are metric, it is better to use principal component analysis. When it is categorical in nature, correspondence analysis is useful. Cluster analysis is also useful to determine the outlier.

Predictive approach
Predictive model suggests that success in occupation depends on set of criteria. So one's association with the criterion is most important.
a) Discriminant function analysis













Correlation approach
a) Spearman rank order correlation
b)

Geometric distance approach
a) Cluster analysis

Multivariate

ANOVA approach
Factor analytic approach


Predictive model
a) Relation between individual/group profile and criterion variable
b) Discriminant function analysis

Imitative learning

Imitative learning theory is based on Social cognitive learning approach of Bandura. It assumes that one can learn through imitation. Imitation learning has following characteristics:

1. There will be one model upon which imitation will take place. For example, child imitates his parents' eating or talking  style.


2. Observing other's behaviour is important so that reciprocal determination can take place.








 3. The imitative behaviour must not be resulted in negative consequence.

4.  Repeated observation is required so that one can act without absence of model in future.

5. It includes learned expectation that one is capable of carrying out a behaviour or producing a desired outcome.

The syllabus just thought of

VISION Performing art acts as facilitator to explore and to modify mental health of the sufferers. Varieties of performing arts are used in prevention, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of physical and mental disorders where psychological factors play a major role . Thus Performing art therapist plays an important role for optimizing mental health care delivery system. In considering urgent need to train more professional performing art therapists to face the growing demands in the new millennium, present 3-year diploma courses offer various psychological theories, methods and the techniques. The course is organized with extensive theoretical inputs and adequate clinical experiences and skills to provide training in the area of mental health. There are three levels – Certificate, Diploma and Advanced Diploma. Each course has separate objectives, teaching pedagogies and evaluation systems. Course includes some projects to understand the theory and to develop adequate skills. The project work includes preparation of workbook, report and PowerPoint presentation. On completion of the course, the student/trainee is expected to perform the following functions through performing arts: 1. to diagnose mental health problem and to undertake therapeutic programme;
2. to apply psychological principle and techniques in rehabilitation for persons with mental health problem and disabilities;
3. to undertake basic research in the areas of mental health/illness and in areas of physical health/diseases;
4. to undertake teaching assignment in psychology of performing art therapy. Drama
SYLLABUS
Certificate Course OBJECTIVES: After completion of this course, students will understand basic concepts of psychology and its relation with performing art therapy. They will understand determinants of child development and basic concepts of Mental health. During teaching, interface will be performing art work of Rabindranath Tagore. Students will be aware of different experiments in psychology so that they can develop scientific pursuit. First Semester A. INTRODUCTION : Psychology as science, History of Psychology, Individual difference, S-R and S-O-R model., Scope of psychology in performing art therapy.
B. FOUNDATIONS: Sensation-Attributes, Attention - Characteristics, fluctuation of attention. Perception - perceptual organization, illusion, distance and depth perception; Learning theories – conditioning, trial and error, insight learning; Memory - Short and long term memory, Forgetting.; Theories of emotion, Intelligence – IQ and SQ assessment, Imagery and thinking.
C. BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS: Sensory organs, Neuron, Neurotransmitters, Brain, localization and function, Spinal cord, Reflex actions, Hormones, Biopsychology.
D. CHILD DEVELOPMENT: Determinants and principles of development. Stages of development, Prenatal and post natal factors of development. Biological foundations – sensory organs, nervous system, reflex actions. Physical, Language, Cognitive, Social and Personality development.
Practical E. METHODS: Variables, Measurement scales, Graphs. checklist, Anecdotal Records
Assignment A: Observe any two behaviour of children and prepare anecdotal records.
Second semester
F. PERSONALITY: Type and Trait theories of Personality, Psychoanalytic approach. Psycho-social approach of Personality. Tests for measuring personality.
F. CONSCIOUSNESS: Western and Indian approach. Layers of consciousness, Integral Psychology.
G. STRESS: General Adaptation syndrome, Role stress, Coping strategies, Assessment of Life events. Stress and Life style.
H. COUNSELLING: Role of counsellors, Counselor-client relations, Theories of adjustment- Frustration-aggression theory, Conflict, Coping strategies. Life skills.
Practical
I. METHODS: Observation, interview, Uses of questionnaires, and psychological tests
Assignment B: Planning and playing two activities and prepare records.

DIPLOMA COURSE
OBJECTIVES: After completion of this course, students will understand principles of positive psychology, classification of Psychiatric disorders and psychopathology.
First Semester A. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: Principles of positive Mental health, The role of self-concept, self-image, Theory of self-efficacy, Rabindrik Postulates for positive living.
B. SOCIAL COGNITION: Dynamics of behaviour, Person perception, Attribution theory, Maslow’s need hierarchy, Group and leadership. Attitude, Human values – Rocheach and Rabindranath Tagore. Script analysis.
C. CLASSIFICATION: Criteria of normality and abnormality, Multi-axial system of classification of DSM-IV-TR and ICD-10. Neurosis and Psychosis.
D. CHILDHOOD PROBLEMS: Learning disorders, Speech disorders, Mental retardation, Physically challenged, Behaviour disorders – sleep, eating, impulse control.
E. SOCIAL PATHOLOGY: Crime and delinquency, suicide, addictive behaviour, social aggression.
Practical
F. METHODS: Characteristics and uses of Psychological instruments. Interviewing, case-history taking for adult and child psychiatry. Physical and Mental state examination.
Assignment A: Case history taking from 4 cases and interpretation. Second semester
G. NEUROTIC DISORDERS: GAD, Somatoform, Depression, Hypochondriasis, OCD. Diagnostic scales.
H. PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS: Psychotic depression, Schizophrenia and MDP. Paranoia.
I. NEURO PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS: Impaired consciousness – Coma, Clouding, delirium.Dementia, Neuro-psychological tests.
Practical
METHODS: Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, Global assessment functioning. Assignment: Taking therapy from 3 cases and writing report. ADVANCED DIPLOMA
OBJECTIVES: After completion of this course, students will understand principles of Psychotherapy, clinical examination and therapy through traditional and performing art mode.
First semester
A. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOTHERAPY: Definitions, objectives, Types of Psychotherapy – Individual short term and long term therapies. Small and large group therapy, Behaviour therapy, Transactional analysis. Cognitive and Cognitive behaviour therapy. Rabindrik Psychotherapy, Professional and Ethical issues.
B. ASSESSMENT: Principles of assessment, Characteristics of psychological instruments – Reliability, validity, norm and standardization. Uses and misuses of psychological instruments.
C. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS: Tests for measuring intelligence, memory, Visuo-motor Gestalt and integration, Neuropsychological tests. Projective techniques – sentence completion test, adjective checklist, Rorschach and Thematic apperception test. Geetbitan as projective test. Five factor personality test.
D. PSYCHIATRIC SERVICES: Theories of rehabilitation, Hospital services, Nursing or care giver, Rehabilitation and care to the Mentally retarded children, Community psychiatry, Psychiatric service for senior people. Ethics and Law.
Practical

E. METHODS: Characteristics and uses of Psychological instruments. Interviewing, case-history taking for adult and child psychiatry. Physical and Mental state examination.
Assignment A: Case history taking from 4 cases and interpretation. Second semester
F. FAMILY THERAPY: Marital, Family, Psychotherapy for children. Assessment of family climate. Therapy with children, Therapy for senior people.
G. THERAPY IN SPECIAL CONDITIONS: Therapies and techniques in the treatment of Deliberate self harm, Bereavement, Personality Disorders, Chronic Mental illness and Medical conditions such as Cancer, Cardiovascular Diseases, HIV/AIDS, and other terminally ill conditions. Physical, sensory and intellectual disabilities.
H. THERAPY FOR DISASTER AFFECTED CONDITIONS: Man-made and Natural disaster, Psychological examination, Counselling.
Practical
Assignment B: Providing psychotherapy to 4 cases and interpretation.

Introduction to Rabindrik Psychotherapy

Introduction to Rabindrik Psychotherapy
Dr. D. Dutta Roy, Ph.D.
Psychology Research Unit
Indian Statistical Institute
Kolkata - 700108
Lecture given at the certificate course students of Performing Art Therapy Centre, RBU dated 7.12.2012.

Reader is requested to make comment on the article.


Q1. What is psychotherapy ?
The term psychotherapy refers to the treatment of psychological disorders through the use of psychological methods rather than physical means like drugs or surgery.
Verbal communication between therapist and client is the most significant element of psychotherapy. It can be carried out individually or in groups. It is concerned with the evaluation of problems and possible solutions as well as with the encouragement of more adaptive ways of thinking and behaving.

Q2. What are the main models of psychotherapy?
Psychodynamic
Behaviour therapy
Existential
Gestalt
Rational emotive therapy
Transactional analysis
Rabindrik psychotherapy

Q3. What is Rabindrik Psychotherapy ? How does it differ from other therapies ?

Rabindrik psychotherapy refers to the way of self-awakening through the use of therapeautic postulates extracted from the literary works of Rabindranath Tagore. It can be used for treatment of psychological disorders. Postulate refers to theoretical assumption. Theory is composed of postulate.
Here, therapist acts as facilitator. Therapist creates the environment through performing arts of Tagore that leads client to understand own conflict and its management. Both verbal and non-verbal communication between therapist and the client are followed. Therapist must have adequate knowledge about therapeautic postulates extracted from the literary works of Rabindranath Tagore.

Q4. What are the similarities and dissimilarities between Rabindrik psychotherapy and other therapies?

All psychotherapies aim at treatment of psychological disorders. But Rabindrik psychotherapy does not accept labeling one as suffering from psychological disorders.
In other therapy, like psychoanalysis, mind is divided into three layers as unconscious, pre and conscious. Rabindrik psychotherpy is concerned with consciousness experience only. Consciousness is classified into three layers as murta, raaga and saraswat.
Verbal communication between therapist and client is the most significant element of psychotherapy.This is followed in Rabindrik psychothrapy. In Rabindrik approach, performing art or non-verabal communication can be used.
Like other therapies, Rabindrik psychotherapy can be administered indiviually or in group.
Other therapies are concerned with the evaluation of problems and possible solutions as well as with the encouragement of more adaptive ways of thinking and behaving. On the other hand, Rabindrik psychotherapy is concerned with self-evaluation and possible solutions to overcome the conflict of layer dynamics.

Q5.What is postulate? Write about few postulates of Rabidrik psychotherpapy.

Postulate is the basic assumption of theory. Any theory is composed of several postulates. Few postulates of Rabidrik psychotherpapy are:

1. Do not label rather understand other’s consciousness.
   
2. Consciousness is free floating. Look at it as detached being.
   
3. Make the consciousness unbounded and experience it.
   Experience of consciousness is like a journey from incomplete to complete across its layers– Murta, Raaga and Saraswat.
   
4. Man is the pursuer of completeness and newness.
   
5. Searching newness makes man incomplete that acts as the drive to find out completeness. Incomplete to complete is a cycling process.
   

Here are few songs in Bengali and in English (translated by me)related to postulates
Do not label rather understand other’s consciousness.

"Je tore pagol bole tare tui bolis ne kichu.
Ajke tore kemon vebe ange je tor dhulo debe
Kal se prate mala hate asbe re tor pichu pichu.
Ajke apan maner vare thak se bose gadir pare
Kalke preme asbe neme, karbe se tar matha nichu."

English:
Do not say anything when one calls on you mad
Assuming you as abnormal, one can throw dust on you today.
Tomorrow he will come to you with garland
Today, due to self-pride, he sits on high chair.
Tomorrow, he will get down and bow his head.

Consciousness is free floating. Look at it as detached being.
"Je ami bhese chale kaler dheue akash tale ori pane dekhchi ami cheye. …… o je sachal chabir mato ami nirab kabir mato- ori pane dekhchi ami cheye. Ei je ami oi ami noi, apan-majhe apni je roi,
Jai na bhese marandhara beye-
Mukto ami, tripto ami, shanto ami, dipto ami, ori pane dekhchi ami cheye.”

English
The ‘I’ that floats on the waves of time under the sky, I am watching at it. …..That ‘I’ moves like moving picture and I am watching at it as silent poet. This ‘I’ is not that ‘I’. I am within me. I am not floating like dead. I am free, satisfied, peaceful and lighted. I am watching at it.

Ei akashe amar mukti aloy aloy


Q6.Is therapeautic assessment important in Rabindrik psychotherapy?

In Rabindrik psychotherapy, therapeutic assessment is important to find out one’s mental state's position across three layers of consciousness. This helps the therapist in comprehending individual’s characteristics, reasons for present behaviour and in predicting one’s future psychological functioning or behaviour.

Q7.What is consciousness? Why is it imporant to study?

Consciousness is the immediate awareness of thoughts, sensations, memories, and the world around us. Experience of consciousness varies from moment to moment. Just like a river, it is changing. Individual’s behaviour is guided by his or her mental state position and its flow at the different layers of consciousness. Understanding about one’s state at the different layers of consciousness and its flowing pattern is prelude of Rabindrik psychotherapy.

Q8. What are changes taken place across three layers of consciousness ?

Consciousness experience varies with mental state position across layers of consciousness. These three layers are Murta, Raaga and Saraswat. When our mental state lies at the layer of murta, we are aware of morphology or the structural properties of the object in our surroundings. When our mental state lies at the layer of raaga, we associate morphology of the object with feeling of pleasantness or unpleasantness. This provides some meaning about object. And finally, when our mental state is in the saraswat layer, we experience harmony between the object and the environment. In this layer, our own existence is mixed with the surroundings. But such experience does not happen in murta and raaga layer.


Q9. What are the characteristics of three layers ?
Characteristics of three layers are given below:
Murta (The outer layer) : What we sense through our five sensory organs.
Raaga (The inner layer) : The meaning carried by the sensory stimuli. It is attached with affect or feeling of pleasant or unpleasantness. When perception is attached with affect, it is called apperception.
Saraswat layer (The inner core) : The feeling of harmony, the existence of truth, the feeling of white.

Q10. How does performing art help in assessment?
By using performing art, one can diagnose extent of malfunctions in the consciousness, locate one’s mental state across layers of consciousness, estimate possible flow of mental functions across layers. After taking case history and mental state examination, therapist will explore modes of performing arts to assess consciousness layers.

Q11. What are the approaches of therapy?
There are different approaches to administer performing art for assessing layers of consciousness.

a) Altered state of consciousness: It differs from normal waking consciousness. In this state, consciousness is split into two simultaneous streams of mental activity. One stream of mental activity remains conscious. But a second stream of mental activity-the one responding to the performing art is dissociated from awareness. This state is almost similar to hypnotic state. In hypnosis, suggestion is given by therapist. But in using performing art, client gets suggestion from the art itself.

b) Projecttion : In projection, individual projects own desires, feelings, needs etc. on the works of Rabindranath Tagore.

c) Self-report: Analysis of one's self-report about matching between own feeling and feeling of different characters of works of Rabindranath Tagore.

Teaching pedagogy

Teaching pedagogy

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Performing Art Therapy in Mental retardation

In the modification of behaviour of Mentally retarded children, performing art therapist should pay specific attention to deficits and deformities in the Murta layer of consciousness through performing art improvisation. Performing art includes specifically music, songs, dance, drama, painting etc having taal, lay, chanda. The last three are important as changes in murta layer of consciousness may affect Raag layer of consciousness that results intrinsic motivation to new or modified behaviour. Intrinsic motivation results sustainable change in the behaviour of children.

Before introducing intervention, case history taking and mental status examination are important. Case history may be collected from the parents or other informants. During taking the history, therapist should check extent of reliability of the statement of informants as there is a scope for hello error. Second, beginning and variation of each complaint must be recorded. If variation is needed, therapist should record the duration of behaviour constancy, possible antecedents or reasons, possible facilitators and inhibitors of the behavior.

Performing art therapist by improvisation of activity can assess child's sensory thresholds, pattern of perception, short, long term memory, working memory, psychomotor co-ordination etc. It must be remembered that aim of performing art therapist is not to teach singing, playing music, drama etc but to facilitate performing arts in order to improve adaptive and to control maladaptive behaviour.

Therapist should identify which adaptive behaviour requires minimum support and which one requires maximum support. For the same, one can prepare behaviour checklist using rating scale. The scale categories will be:

Assign 5 if the behaviour requires least support of others
Assign 4 if the behaviour requires less support of others
Assign 3 if the behaviour requires moderate support of others
Assign 2 if the behaviour requires much support of others
Assign 1 if the behaviour requires maximum support of others

The scaling will help therapist to plot graph of changes and association among different adaptive skills.

ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOUR

Adaptive behaviors are everyday living skills such as walking, talking, getting dressed, going to school, going to work, preparing a meal, cleaning the house, etc. They are skills that a person learns in the process of adapting to his/her surroundings. Since adaptive behaviors are for the most part developmental, it is possible to describe a person's adaptive behavior as an age-equivalent score. An average five-year-old, for example, would be expected to have adaptive behavior similar to that of other five-year-olds.

Performing art therapist will prepare adaptive and mal adaptive behaviour checklist before intervention. Below are the some adaptive and maladaptive behaviour.

MOTOR SKILL

1. Motor Skills
   
2. Gross Motor
   
3. Fine Motor
   
   SOCIAL SKILL
   
4. Social & Communication Skills
   
5. Social Interaction
   
6. Language Comprehension
   
7. Language Expression
   
8. Personal Living Skills
   
   SELF-HELP SKILLS
   
9. Eating & Meal Preparation
   
10. Toileting
    
11. Dressing
    
12. Personal Self-Care
    
13. Domestic Skills
    
14. Community Living Skills
    
    OCCUPATION
    
15. Time & Punctuality
    
16. Money & Value
    
17. Work Skills
    
18. Home/Community Orientation
    

Maladaptive Behavior - General
INTERNALIZED

1. Hurts Self
   
2. Repetitive Habits
   
3. Withdrawn or Inattentive
   
4. Asocial
   
5. Socially Offensive
   
6. Uncooperative
   
   EXTERNALIZED
   
7. Hurts Others
   
8. Destructive to property
   
9. Disruptive
   

Bengali version checklist
Below is the Bengali version checklist to assess abilities to detect source of sound, to pronounce sound and to vary the sound in the ascending and descending orders.

BEHAVIOUR CHECKLIST IN BENGALI LANGUAGE (Click it to make it big)



ACTIVITY ANALYSIS: Activity analysis is most important in modification of one's behaviour.

Activity: First play one rattle lightly and rhythmically in front of the child. Second, observe movement of eye ball, change in facial expression (smile, muscular changes in face), and tertiary activity. Third change the source of sound, observe and score the behaviour. (Click below to make the figure big)

INTERVENTION
Identify deficit > Set target behaviour > Set systematic steps to achieve target behaviour > Activity > Observe > Intervention by activity > Is target behaviour achieved? > yes > Is it sustainable? > Yes > Stop

Here Intervention includes
1. Segmenting behaviour: Target behaviour should be segmented in interlinked parts of behaviour. Each part should be linked with antecedents and consequences so that facilitating and inhibiting factors can be identified.
2. Associating behaviour: Now, arrange the behaviour in such a fashion so that facilitating factors are incorporated
3. Disassociating Behaviour : The inhibitors should be disassociated from each segment of behaviour
4. Shaping behaviour: The existing behaviour can be shaped using reinforcement schedule principles
5. Modeling behaviour: The new behaviour can be modeled using reinforcement schedule principles

MENTAL RETARDATION
Mental retardation (MR) is a generalized disorder appearing before adulthood, characterized by significantly impaired cognitive functioning and deficits inhttp://www.blogger.com/img/blank.gif two or more adaptive behaviors.


MR possesses less than 70 IQ and SQ level. According to the definition by the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), an individual is considered to have mental retardation based on the following three criteria: intellectual functioning level (IQ) is below 70-75; significant limitations exist in two or more adaptive skill areas; and the condition manifests before the age of 18. Adaptive skill areas are those daily living skills needed to live, work, and play in the community. The new definition includes ten adaptive skills: communication, self-care, home living, social skills, leisure, health and safety, self-direction, functional academics, community use, and work.

Cognitive functioning: Any mental process that involves symbolic operations–eg, perception, memory, creation of imagery, and thinking; Cognitive functioning encompasses awareness and capacity for judgment.

Individual fails to put the blocks in the hole according to the size and shape. This suggests impairment in perception.
Adaptive behaviors: It is the individual’s everyday behavior that he/she emits to respond to the demands of his/her cultural, social, and physical environment. Adaptive behaviour includes self-help eating (taking food without other's help), dressing (to wear cloth him/her self, to button the wearing), socialization (to play with others, to visit the neighbour's house), occupational activities (to string the bead, to clean the utensils etc).

Physical demand: "Open the door", "Close the door"
Social demand: "Hello","Go to toilet"

STATISTICS

According to the World Health Organization (1994); approximately 156 million people, or 3 percent of the world's population have mental retardation. Prevalence by continent:

Africa 20,310,000
Australia 5,25,000
Asia 97,710,000
Europe 15,390,000
Latin America 13,800,000
North America 8,610,000

Mental retardation knows no boundaries. It cuts across the lines of racial, ethnic, educational, social and economic backgrounds. It can occur in any family. One out of ten American families is directly affected by mental retardation.

Ref: http://www.disabilityindia.org/MentalRetardation.html

CAUSES:
Problems at birth:Although any birth condition of unusual stress may injure the infant's brain, premature birth, and low birth weight predict serious problems more often than any other conditions.

Problems after birth: Childhood diseases such as whooping cough, chicken pox, and measles can damage the brain, as can accidents such as a blow to the head or near drowning. Mercury and lead poisoning can cause irreparable damage to the brain and nervous system.

Poverty: Children in poor families may suffer mental retardation because of malnutrition, disease-producing conditions, inadequate medical care, and environmental health hazards. Also, children in disadvantaged areas may be deprived of many common cultural and day-to-day experiences provided to other young children. Research suggests that such under-stimulation can result in irreversible damage and can serve as a cause of mental retardation.

CLASSIFICATION:
In ICD-10, there are 6 classifications as

1. (F70–F79) Mental retardation
   
2. (F70.) Mild mental retardation
   
3. (F71.) Moderate mental retardation
   
4. (F72.) Severe mental retardation
   
5. (F73.) Profound mental retardation
   
6. (F78.) Other [[mental retardation
   
7. (F79.) Unspecified mental retardation
   

Mild mental retardation: Approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in the mildly retarded category. Their IQ score ranges from 50-75, and they can often acquire academic skills up to the 6th grade level. They can become fairly self-sufficient and in some cases live independently, with community and social support.

Moderate mental retardation: About 10% of the mentally retarded population is considered moderately retarded. Moderately retarded individuals have IQ scores ranging from 35-55. They can carry out work and self-care tasks with moderate supervision. They typically acquire communication skills in childhood and are able to live and function successfully within the community in a supervised environment such as a group home.

Severe mental retardation: About 3-4% of the mentally retarded population is severely retarded. Severely retarded individuals have IQ scores of 20-40. They may master very basic self-care skills and some communication skills. Many severely retarded individuals are able to live in a group home.

Profound mental retardation: Only 1-2% of the mentally retarded population is classified as profoundly retarded. Profoundly retarded individuals have IQ scores under 20-25. They may be able to develop basic self-care and communication skills with appropriate support and training. Their retardation is often caused by an accompanying neurological disorder. The profoundly retarded need a high level of structure and supervision.

The American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) has developed another widely accepted diagnostic classification system for mental retardation. The AAMR classification system focuses on the capabilities of the retarded individual rather than on the limitations. The categories describe the level of support required. They are: intermittent support, limited support, extensive support, and pervasive support. To some extent, the AAMR classification mirrors the DSM-IV classification. Intermittent support, for example, is support needed only occasionally, perhaps during times of stress or crisis. It is the type of support typically required for most mildly retarded individuals. At the other end of the spectrum, pervasive support, or life-long, daily support for most adaptive areas, would be required for profoundly retarded individuals.

medical-dictionary

MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION
Psychiatric mental status examination

1. Observations of Examiner (not in response to questions):
2. Patient's own subjective evaluation of his emotional reaction and mood
3. Content of thought
4. Examination of the Cognitive Functions

THERAPY

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA):Applied behavior analysis is the process of systematically applying interventions based upon the principles of learning theory to improve socially significant behaviors to a meaningful degree, and to demonstrate that the interventions employed are responsible for the improvement in behavior. Learning principles include classical, operant conditioning and trial and error theory.

Socially significant behaviors" include reading, academics, social skills, communication, and adaptive living skills. Adaptive living skills include gross and fine motor skills, eating and food preparation, toileting, dressing, personal self-care, domestic skills, time and punctuality, money and value, home and community orientation, and work skills.

Components of ABA

1. selection of interfering behavior or behavioral skill deficit;
   


2. identification of goals and objectives;
   


3. establishment of a method of measuring target behaviors;
   


4. evaluation of the current levels of performance (baseline);
   


5. design and implementation of the interventions that teach new skills and/or reduce interfering behaviors;
   


6. continuous measurement of target behaviors to determine the effectiveness of the intervention, and
   


7. ongoing evaluation of the effectiveness of the intervention, with modifications made as necessary to maintain and/or increase both the effectiveness and the efficiency of the intervention.
   

PERFORMING ART THERAPY
Performing art therapist will prepare one case history records and behaviour check list based on possible limitations of children or based on observation of child's behaviour. The check list of behaviour will be graded in such a fashion so that one can measure change in behaviour across periods. Measurement is important as this will give therapist regular feedback about therapy. Therapist should be aware of different developmental stages from birth to childhood and its different principles. I am suggesting Hurlock or Mussen's book on child development. Knowledge about the developmental stages gives idea about extent of development with age. Development includes physical, intellectual, social, moral, emotional and personalty development.To develop adaptive behaviour, it is important to know about gross (total-body movements as playing football) and fine motor skills (delicate movement where in eye-hand coordination is involved as beading string).


DANCE THERAPY: Dance is useful therapy to improve psycho-motor skills. Dance therapy is not movement therapy where in movement is important for adaptive skill development. Dance therapy helps to integrate sensory organs of the children. Physical complaints can be reduced by the dance. Besides, it develops socialization skills. Dance helps therapist to examine the extent of physical and cognitive deficits of the children.Therapist can design the training need oriented dance in order to develop specific adaptive skills. But in this technique, client's consciousness will not be free floating. Therefore, therapist can act as facilitator rather trainer. Therapist can demonstrate phule phule dhole dhole dance of Tagore sangeet. It facilitates both eye-coordination and coordination among different parts of body.



DRAMA THERAPY: To perform drama, therapist can use mask of pet animals, toys, flash cards, sands etc. to develop adaptive behaviour skills.

MUSIC THERAPY: Therapist can improvise theme using instrumental music. Some of the instruments are given below:




The theme should be directed to develop adaptive behaviour of the children.