Data collection types

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Sampling techniques

Probability Sampling Methods

1. Simple random sampling

In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has an equal chance, or probability, of being selected. One way of obtaining a random sample is to give each individual in a population a number, and then use a table of random numbers to decide which individuals to include.1 For example, if you have a sampling frame of 1000 individuals, labelled 0 to 999, use groups of three digits from the random number table to pick your sample. So, if the first three numbers from the random number table were 094, select the individual labelled “94”, and so on.

As with all probability sampling methods, simple random sampling allows the sampling error to be calculated and reduces selection bias. A specific advantage is that it is the most straightforward method of probability sampling. A disadvantage of simple random sampling is that you may not select enough individuals with your characteristic of interest, especially if that characteristic is uncommon. It may also be difficult to define a complete sampling frame and inconvenient to contact them, especially if different forms of contact are required (email, phone, post) and your sample units are scattered over a wide geographical area.
 

2. Systematic sampling

Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The intervals are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample size n from a population of size x, you should select every x/nth individual for the sample.  For example, if you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population of 1000, select every 1000/100 = 10th member of the sampling frame.

Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random sampling, and it is easy to administer. However, it may also lead to bias, for example if there are underlying patterns in the order of the individuals in the sampling frame, such that the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the underlying pattern. As a hypothetical example, if a group of students were being sampled to gain their opinions on college facilities, but the Student Record Department’s central list of all students was arranged such that the sex of students alternated between male and female, choosing an even interval (e.g. every 20th student) would result in a sample of all males or all females. Whilst in this example the bias is obvious and should be easily corrected, this may not always be the case.
 

3. Stratified sampling

In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all share a similar characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary between the different subgroups, and we want to ensure representation from all the subgroups. For example, in a study of stroke outcomes, we may stratify the population by sex, to ensure equal representation of men and women. The study sample is then obtained by taking equal sample sizes from each stratum. In stratified sampling, it may also be appropriate to choose non-equal sample sizes from each stratum. For example, in a study of the health outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if there are three hospitals each with different numbers of nursing staff (hospital A has 500 nurses, hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it would be appropriate to choose the sample numbers from each hospital proportionally (e.g. 10 from hospital A, 20 from hospital B and 40 from hospital C). This ensures a more realistic and accurate estimation of the health outcomes of nurses across the county, whereas simple random sampling would over-represent nurses from hospitals A and B. The fact that the sample was stratified should be taken into account at the analysis stage.

Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of the results by reducing sampling bias. However, it requires knowledge of the appropriate characteristics of the sampling frame (the details of which are not always available), and it can be difficult to decide which characteristic(s) to stratify by.
 

4. Clustered sampling

In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the sampling unit, rather than individuals. The population is divided into subgroups, known as clusters, which are randomly selected to be included in the study. Clusters are usually already defined, for example individual GP practices or towns could be identified as clusters. In single-stage cluster sampling, all members of the chosen clusters are then included in the study. In two-stage cluster sampling, a selection of individuals from each cluster is then randomly selected for inclusion. Clustering should be taken into account in the analysis. The General Household survey, which is undertaken annually in England, is a good example of a (one-stage) cluster sample. All members of the selected households (clusters) are included in the survey.1

Cluster sampling can be more efficient that simple random sampling, especially where a study takes place over a wide geographical region. For instance, it is easier to contact lots of individuals in a few GP practices than a few individuals in many different GP practices. Disadvantages include an increased risk of bias, if the chosen clusters are not representative of the population, resulting in an increased sampling error.
 

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

1. Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because participants are selected based on availability and willingness to take part. Useful results can be obtained, but the results are prone to significant bias, because those who volunteer to take part may be different from those who choose not to (volunteer bias), and the sample may not be representative of other characteristics, such as age or sex. Note: volunteer bias is a risk of all non-probability sampling methods.
 

2. Quota sampling

This method of sampling is often used by market researchers. Interviewers are given a quota of subjects of a specified type to attempt to recruit. For example, an interviewer might be told to go out and select 20 adult men, 20 adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could interview them about their television viewing. Ideally the quotas chosen would proportionally represent the characteristics of the underlying population.

Whilst this has the advantage of being relatively straightforward and potentially representative, the chosen sample may not be representative of other characteristics that weren’t considered (a consequence of the non-random nature of sampling). 2
 

3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling

Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies on the judgement of the researcher when choosing who to ask to participate. Researchers may implicitly thus choose a “representative” sample to suit their needs, or specifically approach individuals with certain characteristics. This approach is often used by the media when canvassing the public for opinions and in qualitative research.

Judgement sampling has the advantage of being time-and cost-effective to perform whilst resulting in a range of responses (particularly useful in qualitative research). However, in addition to volunteer bias, it is also prone to errors of judgement by the researcher and the findings, whilst being potentially broad, will not necessarily be representative.
 

4. Snowball sampling

This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard-to-reach groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them, so the sample increases in size like a rolling snowball. For example, when carrying out a survey of risk behaviours amongst intravenous drug users, participants may be asked to nominate other users to be interviewed.

Snowball sampling can be effective when a sampling frame is difficult to identify. However, by selecting friends and acquaintances of subjects already investigated, there is a significant risk of selection bias (choosing a large number of people with similar characteristics or views to the initial individual identified).
 

Bias in sampling

There are five important potential sources of bias that should be considered when selecting a sample, irrespective of the method used. Sampling bias may be introduced when:1

1. Any pre-agreed sampling rules are deviated from
2. People in hard-to-reach groups are omitted
3. Selected individuals are replaced with others, for example if they are difficult to contact
4. There are low response rates
5. An out-of-date list is used as the sample frame (for example, if it excludes people who have recently moved to an area)

Reference: https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/research-methods/1a-epidemiology/methods-of-sampling-population

Study skills for LD children

LD students are those who demonstrate a significant discrepancy, which is not the result of some other handicap, between academic achievement and intellectual abilities in one or more of the areas of oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skills, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation, mathematics reasoning, or spelling.

Following is a list of some of the common indicators of learning disabled students. These traits are usually not isolated ones; rather, they appear in varying degrees and amounts in most learning disabled students. A learning disabled student …

Has poor auditory memory—both short term and long term.

Has a low tolerance level and a high frustration level.

Has a weak or poor self-esteem.

Is easily distractible.

Finds it difficult, if not impossible, to stay on task for extended periods of time.

Is spontaneous in expression; often cannot control emotions.

Is easily confused.

Is verbally demanding.

Has some difficulty in working with others in small or large group settings.

Has difficulty in following complicated directions or remembering directions for extended periods of time.

Has coordination problems with both large and small muscle groups.

Has inflexibility of thought; is difficult to persuade otherwise.

Has poor handwriting skills.

Has a poor concept of time.

Teaching learning disabled youngsters will present you with some unique and distinctive challenges. Not only will these students demand more of your time and patience; so, too, will they require specialized instructional strategies in a structured environment that supports and enhances their learning potential. It is important to remember that learning disabled students are not students who are incapacitated or unable to learn; rather, they need differentiated instruction tailored to their distinctive learning abilities. Use these appropriate strategies with learning disabled students:

Provide oral instruction for students with reading disabilities. Present tests and reading materials in an oral format so the assessment is not unduly influenced by lack of reading ability.

Provide learning disabled students with frequent progress checks. Let them know how well they are progressing toward an individual or class goal.

Give immediate feedback to learning disabled students. They need to see quickly the relationship between what was taught and what was learned.

Make activities concise and short, whenever possible. Long, drawn-out projects are particularly frustrating for a learning disabled child.

Learning disabled youngsters have difficulty learning abstract terms and concepts. Whenever possible, provide them with concrete objects and events—items they can touch, hear, smell, etc.

Learning disabled students need and should get lots of specific praise. Instead of just saying, “You did well,” or “I like your work,” be sure you provide specific praising comments that link the activity directly with the recognition; for example, “I was particularly pleased by the way in which you organized the rock collection for Karin and Miranda.”

When necessary, plan to repeat instructions or offer information in both written and verbal formats. Again, it is vitally necessary that learning disabled children utilize as many of their sensory modalities as possible.

Encourage cooperative learning activities (see Teaching with Cooperative Learning) when possible. Invite students of varying abilities to work together on a specific project or toward a common goal. Create an atmosphere in which a true “community of learners” is facilitated and enhanced.




STUDY SKILLS
What are study skills?

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Study skills instruction gives students the tools, the training, and the readiness to do a good job in school. The more adept students are with reading, writing, speaking and study skills, the more efficient and thorough they will be at getting the job of learning done.



"Metacognition" is a popular term to describe the learning process. It means transcending cognition, or more simply put, thinking about thinking. Study skills instruction develops a metacognitive approach to school; it helps them learn how to learn. Students need to go beyond simply completing an assignment. They need to be aware of the process they follow and the steps they take when pre-reading a textbook, taking notes, or answering an essay question.

When should study skills be taught?

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Study skills instruction can begin as early as the elementary grades with organization skills and main idea skills. By fifth grade, students can begin to learn note taking strategies and basic textbook skills. Advanced note taking, summarizing, textbook, test preparation and report writing should be emphasized in middle school, and then practiced in high school. As students progress through the grades, they must develop a new set of skills to cope with greater demands: the higher the grade, the greater the need for study skills to cope with those demands.

SQ3R is a reading comprehension method named for its five steps: survey, question, read, retrieve, and review. The method was introduced by Francis P. Robinson, an American education philosopher in his 1946 book Effective Study.





1. Survey

First, you take a few minutes to scan the entire text. Pay attention to layout, chapters, sections, graphs, pictures, words in bold and italics. In general, these provide important information about the contents of the text. By quickly scanning through the text first, you create an overview and structure. This serves as the foundation for the active reading and understanding of the text.



2. Question

Ask yourself questions about the text that you scanned during the previous step. You can for instance turn the chapter titles into questions. Write down the questions. Ask yourself what you already know about the topic and what your goal is for reading the text. Try to understand what it is that the author wants to convey. You can use the left margin to write down your questions about the text in a structured way. At a later stage, you can note down the answers in the right margin.



3. Read

Read the text while keeping the structure from step 1, “S” and the questions from step 2, “Q” in the back of your mind. Pay attention to chapters, sentences printed in bold, explanations under graphs and images. Read ‘actively’, write down (additional) questions while you are reading and try to find answers to previously asked questions. Write down answers and explanations in the right margin of the text. Take your time for the more complicated parts of the text and read it again if you need to. Give less attention to unimportant information. Reread per part and repeat these parts to yourself in your own words.



4. Recite

Repeat (aloud) in your own words what you have read. Ask yourself questions about the text. Explain what you have read to someone else, you can also do this in your imagination. Making a summary in your own words provides extra support.



5. Review

Read all the relevant parts of the text again, look at your notes. Possibly improve on your notes, paying extra attention to the parts you found difficult. Read your own questions on the left side of the text (cover the answers on the right) and try to answer them. This step is the most effective if you do it a day after step 1 through 4. After following these five steps, you will have actively read a text and you will be better able to remember and explain what it is about



A fourth R, SQ4R, is sometimes added to the reading method. The fourth R can mean different things, for instance Relate, Record or Reflect. This addition can help you to for example create links to knowledge that you already have or personal experiences (Relate). The with Record version is a more extensive version for making the summary and applying structure in the text.



You can for instance record the structure of the text in a schematic representation or highlight the most important parts of the text. The R for Reflect stands for discussing the theme with others, asking yourself what the topic means to you, finding examples or events that clarify the topic. The advantage of the SQ3R Method is that you decide what is in it. It provides a foundation for you to use your own (learning) goals, in order to make it work for you.





REAP



Students must assimilate the information read into their own schemata to facilitate long-term memory. Isolated and unconnected pieces of information easily fade from memory, but postreading activities provide the glue to make a cohesive picture of what is read. Read-Encode-Annotate-Ponder,

REAP, is one of the most basic ways to facilitate higher-order thinking through reading, writing, and thinking.



Read-Encode-Annotate-Ponder (REAP)



REAP is designed to improve thinking, the underlying musculature for active reading and meaningful writing. The idea for this reader-writer exchange system was proposed some time ago (Manzo, 1975) as a means of improving and supporting a national content area reading and writing

project essentially for urban schools. Shortly afterwards it was collected into a teaching-learning approach called REAP—Read-Encode-AnnotatePonder (Eanet & Manzo, 1976; Eanet, 1978, 1983).



The REAP system for responding to text has been in use in elementary through college classrooms for two decades. It is based on a scaffold form of writing that invites creativity, much as does haiku, or any other disciplined form of art (Manzo, Manzo, & Albee, 2002).



REAP primarily is a cognitive-enrichment approach that teaches students to think more precisely and deeply about what they read, by following

the four-step strategy symbolized by its title:



READ to get the writer’s basic message;



ENCODE the message into your own words while reading;



ANNOTATE your analysis of the message by writing responses

from several perspectives, and;



PONDER what you have read and written—first by reviewing

it yourself, then by sharing and discussing it with

others, and finally by reading and discussing the

responses of others.



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SEMANTIC  MAP

Semantic mapping is a visual strategy for vocabulary expansion and  extension of knowledge by  displaying in categories words related  to one another" (Kholi, & Sharifafar, 2013). These almost graphic organizers are not pre-made, but made by the students to help "web" out their ideas. Semantic maps go beyond just a graphic organizer. Their strength is  “an adaptation of concept definition mapping but [it] builds on students’ background knowledge or schema. While drawing on prior knowledge, it recognizes important components and shows the relationships among them" (Kholi, & Sharifafar, 2013). This building on previous knowledge is extremely important for their development of vocabulary. It's been well documented by researches that “Instructional activities that allow for a visual display of words and promote students' comparing and contrasting of new words to known words can be a beneficial means for increasing their vocabulary knowledge" (Rupley, Logan, & Nichols, 1998).

FLOW CHART

Cognitive distortion

Cognitive Distortions

1.All-or-Nothing Thinking / Polarized Thinking

Also known as “Black-and-White Thinking,” this distortion manifests as an inability or unwillingness to see shades of gray. In other words, you see things in terms of extremes – something is either fantastic or awful, you are either perfect or a total failure.

 

2. Overgeneralization

This sneaky distortion takes one instance or example and generalizes it to an overall pattern. For example, a student may receive a C on one test and conclude that she is stupid and a failure. Overgeneralizing can lead to overly negative thoughts about oneself and one’s environment based on only one or two experiences.

 

3. Mental Filter

Similar to overgeneralization, the mental filter distortion focuses on a single negative and excludes all the positive. An example of this distortion is one partner in a romantic relationship dwelling on a single negative comment made by the other partner and viewing the relationship as hopelessly lost, while ignoring the years of positive comments and experiences.

The mental filter can foster a negative view of everything around you by focusing only on the negative.

 

4. Disqualifying the Positive

On the flip side, the “Disqualifying the Positive” distortion acknowledges positive experiences but rejects them instead of embracing them.

For example, a person who receives a positive review at work might reject the idea that they are a competent employee and attribute the positive review to political correctness, or to their boss simply not wanting to talk about their employee’s performance problems.

This is an especially malignant distortion since it can facilitate the continuance of negative thought patterns even in the face of lots of evidence to the contrary.

 

5. Jumping to Conclusions – Mind Reading

This “Jumping to Conclusions” distortion manifests as the inaccurate belief that we know what another person is thinking. Of course, it is possible to have an idea of what other people are thinking, but this distortion refers to the negative interpretations that we jump to.

Seeing a stranger with an unpleasant expression and jumping to the conclusion that they are thinking something negative about you is an example of this distortion.

 

6. Jumping to Conclusions – Fortune Telling

A sister distortion to mind reading, fortune telling refers to the tendency to make conclusions and predictions based on little to no evidence and holding them as gospel truth.

One example of fortune-telling is a young, single woman predicting that she will never find love or have a committed and happy relationship based only on the fact that she has not found it yet. There is simply no way for her to know how her life will turn out, but she sees this prediction as fact rather than one of several possible outcomes.

 

7. Magnification (Catastrophizing) or Minimization

Also known as the “Binocular Trick” for its stealthy skewing of your perspective, this distortion involves exaggerating the importance or meaning of things or minimizing the importance or meaning of things.

An athlete who is generally a good player but makes a mistake may magnify the importance of that mistake and believe that he is a terrible teammate, while an athlete who wins a coveted award in her sport may minimize the importance of the award and continue believing that she is only a mediocre player.

 

8. Emotional Reasoning

This may be one of the most surprising distortions to many readers, and it is also one of the most important to identify and address. The logic behind this distortion is not surprising to most people; rather, it is the realization that virtually all of us have bought into this distortion at one time or another.

Emotional reasoning refers to the acceptance of one’s emotions as fact. It can be described as “I feel it, therefore it must be true.” Of course, we know this isn’t a reasonable belief, but it is a common one nonetheless.

Relevant: What is Emotional Intelligence? + 18 Ways to Improve It

 

9. Should Statements

Another particularly damaging distortion is the tendency to make “should” statements. Should statements are statements that you make to yourself about what you “should” do, what you “ought” to do, or what you “must” do. They can also be applied to others, imposing a set of expectations that will likely not be met.

When we hang on too tightly to our “should” statements about ourselves, the result is often guilt that we cannot live up to them. When we cling to our “should” statements about others, we are generally disappointed by the failure of the others to meet our expectations, leading to anger and resentment.

 

10. Labeling and Mislabeling

These tendencies are basically extreme forms of overgeneralization, in which we assign judgments of value to ourselves or to others based on one instance or experience.

For example, a student who labels herself as “an utter fool” for failing an assignment is engaging in this distortion, as is the waiter who labels a customer “a grumpy old miser” if he fails to thank the waiter for bringing his food. Mislabeling refers to the application of highly emotional, loaded language when labeling.

 

11. Personalization

As the name implies, this distortion involves taking everything personally or assigning blame to yourself for no logical reason to believe you are to blame.

This distortion covers a wide range of situations, from assuming you are the reason a friend did not enjoy the girl’s night out, to the more severe examples of believing that you are the cause for every instance of moodiness or irritation in those around you.

In addition to these basic cognitive distortions, Beck and Burns have mentioned a few others (Beck, 1976; Burns, 1980):

 

12. Control Fallacies

A control fallacy manifests as one of two beliefs: (1) that we have no control over our lives and are helpless victims of fate, or (2) that we are in complete control of ourselves and our surroundings, giving us responsibility for the feelings of those around us. Both beliefs are damaging, and both are equally inaccurate.

No one is in complete control of what happens to them, and no one has absolutely no control over their situation. Even in extreme situations where an individual seemingly has no choices in what they do, where they go, or what they say, they still have a certain amount of control over how they approach their situation mentally.

 

13. Fallacy of Fairness

While we would all probably prefer to operate in a world that is fair, this assumption is not based in reality and can foster negative feelings when we are faced with proof of life’s unfairness.

A person who judges every experience by its perceived fairness has fallen for this fallacy, and will likely feel anger, resentment, and hopelessness when they inevitably encounter a situation that is not fair.

 

14. Fallacy of Change

Another fallacy distortion involves expecting others to change if we pressure or encourage them enough. This distortion is usually accompanied by a belief that our happiness and success rests on other people, leading us to believe that forcing those around us to change is the only way to get what we want.

A man who thinks “If I just encourage my wife to stop doing the things that irritate me, I can be a better husband and a happier person” is exhibiting the fallacy of change.

 

15. Always Being Right

Perfectionists and those struggling with Imposter Syndrome will recognize this distortion – it is the belief that we must always be right, correct, or accurate. With this distortion, the idea that we could be wrong is absolutely unacceptable, and we will fight to the metaphorical death to prove that we are right.

For example, the internet commenters who spend hours arguing with each other over an opinion or political issue far beyond the point where reasonable individuals would conclude that they should “agree to disagree” are engaging in the “Always Being Right” distortion. To them, it is not simply a matter of a difference of opinion, it is an intellectual battle that must be won at all costs.

 

16. Heaven’s Reward Fallacy

This distortion is a popular one, particularly with the myriad examples of this fallacy playing out on big and small screens across the world. The “Heaven’s Reward Fallacy” manifests as a belief that one’s struggles, one’s suffering, and one’s hard work will result in a just reward.

It is obvious why this type of thinking is a distortion – how many examples can you think of, just within the realm of your personal acquaintances, where hard work and sacrifice did not pay off?

Sometimes no matter how hard we work or how much we sacrifice, we will not achieve what we hope to achieve. To think otherwise is a potentially damaging pattern of thought that can result in disappointment, frustration, anger, and even depression when the awaited reward does not materialize.

Training on Psychometric approach to Psychological counselling.

Background

Psychometric approach to Psychological counselling helps client breaking down  perception of self and the surroundings into 'grades' so that perception can be scaled. Scaling helps the client and counselor to understand extent of success and failure of the counselling across different target areas for intervention. This approach is non-clinical and non-labeling. Client becomes able to construct and reconstruct the environment. Client more readily takes ownership of their treatment goals and progress when asked to rate them on a scale.


Assumptions

This approach has some assumptions :

(a)  individuals  are healthy  and  competent;  
(b)  they  have  the  innate capacity to construct  solutions  and  meanings that can enhance their lives; 
(c)  Individual is able to scale own abilities, self-concept and treatment goal 
(d) Individuals  do  not  resist  change;  they in fact want to change
(e) Scaling the change helps both counselor and the client  to reduce counseling time.


ANNOUNCEMENT


A. Course title : Training on Psychometric approach to Psychological counselling. 
B. Organized by : Psychology Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata campus. 
C. Objective : Aim of the training is to disseminate knowledge about Psychometric scaling procedure in Psychological counselling. 
D. Qualification: Post graduation in  Psychology with knowledge about Psychological counselling. 
E. Eligibility : Good knowledge in Psychometrics.
F. Topics

1. Measurement in Counselling procedure, Research design in Counselling effectiveness. 
2. Solution focused therapy 

3.Psychometric scaling. 

4. Psychometric Counselling.

G. Date and time : 15-16th October, 2019, 11-4 PM. 

H. Registration :It is free to join. Register soon. First come first serve basis. https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfFQOwNVsk1ep8uSeAgquXOHlCRsgs_Z_-XsAWXfuOx5Saxiw/viewform?vc=0&c=0&w=1

I. Seats : Not more than 10 seats. 
J. Venue: Psychology Research Unit, 7th Floor, P.J.Auditorium, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata campus. 

TENTATIVE PROGRAMME

15.10.19 (Tuesday)
Inauguration

11-11:30 : Inauguration
11:30-1:30 : Measurement in Psychological counselling - Dr. Rama Manna, Head, Department of Guidance and counselling, Indian Institute of Psychometry, Kolkata.

1:30-2: Lunch time
2-4 : Solution focused therapy - Ms. Sabornee Karmakar, M. Phil in Clinical Psychology, Sr. Research fellow, Psychology Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata. 

16.10.19

11-1:30 : Psychological scales and scaling - Dr. Rita Karmakar, Assistant professor, Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences. Amity University Kolkata. 

1:30-2: Lunch time
2-4 : Case studies on Psychometric counseling. - Dr. Debdulal Dutta Roy, Head, Psychology Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata.

Rabindrik Play therapy

About Rabindrik play therapy :

A. Rabindrik play therapy is evidence based, real time, object oriented, auto suggestive in which client or patient uses own imagination freely to create meaningful awareness of the tri-layers of consciousness and to optimize the consciousness flow.

B. Types:Rabindrik play therapy is of two types - Free imagery and guided imagery. Free imagery is selection of any song out of archive and guided imagery is selected by therapist using systematic research design.

C. Functions of Rabindrik play therapist:

1. To establish contact the play with three layers of consciousness.
2. To create the flow across consciousness layers.
3. To locate  movement of the consciousness loci and it's functions.
4. Therapist improvises situations out of preferred Rabindra sangeet.
5. Therapist if necessary may assist by cue in interpretation.
6. Therapist will be concerned with subject's own interpretation on the symbols.
7. Play therapist will encourage
Free association of the consciousness layers.

D. Research methodology : Rabindrik play therapy follows both naturalistic and experimental conditions on single individual and group of individuals.
It follows both qualitative and quantitative techniques in conducting research. I have applied phenomenological approach but one can use grounded theory.

R data set

Age	Sex	Stream	Father's Occupation		Mother's Occupation		R	I	A	S	E	C
18	Male	CS	Business		Homemaker		5	5	1	3	5	1
19	Male	CS	Shop Keeper		Homemaker		1	1	4	3	2	4
18	Male	CS	Service		Homemaker		6	4	4	2	4	2
18	Male	CS	RPF		Nurse		4	2	4	3	3	3
19	Male	CS	Cultivation		Homemaker		3	5	4	2	4	2
18	Male	CS	Business		Homemaker		3	3	2	1	4	2
18	Male	CS	Self Employed		Homemaker		4	2	3	2	4	1
19	Male	CS	Service		Homemaker		5	5	6	4	3	3
18	Male	CS	Private Service		Private Tutor		5	2	4	3	3	3
18	Male	CS	None		Homemaker		5	6	4	3	4	2
18	Male	CS	Retired IAF Surgent		Homemaker		5	2	4	3	2	4
18	Male	CS	Service		Homemaker		4	3	6	4	6	0
18	Male	CS	Business		Homemaker		5	3	3	4	3	3
19	Male	CS	Farmer		Homemaker		2	5	0	2	4	2
17	Male	CS	Service		Homemaker		3	4	2	3	3	3
17.5	Male	CS	Retired IAF Surgent		Homemaker		3	1	2	3	4	2
17	Male	CS	Compounder		Homemaker		5	3	1	2	5	1
17	Male	CS	Post Master		Teacher		3	3	2	1	5	1
17	Male	CS	Railway Service		Homemaker		4	5	1	2	2	3
18	Male	CS	Business		Homemaker		3	4	4	4	2	4
18	Male	CS	Service		Teacher		5	4	1	3	2	4
17	Male	CS	Service		Self Employed		4	5	1	3	4	2
18	Male	CS	Railway Service		Homemaker		5	4	5	4	4	3

# root directory

dir()

# Knowing the session Directory

getwd()

#make the new Directory in session

dir.create("C:/Users/D Dutta Roy/Documents/mydirectory")

# setting the directory

setwd("C:/Users/D Dutta Roy/Documents/mydirectory")

# change the directory

#import data table from excel

 x=read.table(file="clipboard",header=T,sep="\t")

Paper writing format

One good research paper

https://audiologyresearch.org/index.php/audio/article/view/222/266

AMA format

http://research.wou.edu/ama/amapaperformat

http://www.citethisforme.com/citation-generator/ama

MLA format

http://olympus.sandhills.edu/english/wordguide/mlaformat.html

t-test, ANOVA, ANCOVA and MANOVA

A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a significant difference between the means of two groups, which may be related in certain features. ... A t-test is used as a hypothesis testing tool, which allows testing of an assumption applicable to a population.







There are two main types of ANOVA: (1) "one-way" ANOVA compares levels (i.e. groups) of a single factor based on single continuous response variable (e.g. comparing test score by 'level of education') and (2) a "two-way" ANOVA compares levels of two or more factors for mean differences on a single continuous response variable(e.g. comparing test score by both 'level of education' and 'zodiac sign'). In practice, you will see one-way ANOVAs more often and when the term ANOVA is generically used, it often refers to a one-way ANOVA. Henceforth in this blog entry, I use the term ANOVA to refer to the one-way flavor.

Autism

About 1 in 100 children in India under age 10 has autism, and nearly 1 in 8 has at least one neurodevelopmental condition. The estimates are based on the first rigorous study of its kind in the country.

The ICD-11 updates the diagnostic criteria for autism, and is now more in line the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) published in 2013 by the American Psychiatric Association. This is to say that it includes Asperger’s Syndrome, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder and certain other generalised developmental disorders, within the category of ‘Autism’.
With regards to the described characteristics of autism, the ICD-11 also includes the same two categories as the DSM-5: difficulties in interaction and social communication on the one hand, and restricted interests and repetitive behaviours on the other. It thus removes a third characteristic listed in the previous edition of the ICD, related to language problems. Both classifications also point to the importance of examining unusual sensory sensitivities, which is common among people on the autism spectrum.

The best treatment for ASD must combine several disciplines - behavioral, developmental, academic, and medications. The treatment must be customized to each individual child's requirements and must follow the general principle of trying to achieve the best possible functional ability using the available resources as needed.

Behavioral modification may be very helpful. Children with ASD may assume a wild behavior that if not corrected may lead to severe, life threatening behaviors that may require extreme measures. Early strict behavioral modifications may prevent future use of medications and institutionalization.

Parents must remember! If the family changes their normal behavior and assumes abnormal routines (in order to accommodate to the child's abnormal behaviors and prevent his temper tantrum), instead of the family teaching the child normal behavior, the entire family becomes behaviorally disrupted and the child with ASD loses his chance to learn normal, socially accepted behavior.

Autism is considered to be on a spectrum. It is called a spectrum because some people have only a few or mild symptoms while others have many or severe symptoms.

Characteristics of Autism Can Include:

trouble using and understanding language or certain aspects of language such as sarcasm, expressions, and body language.
difficulty taking in sensory input in an ordinary way. For example, a vacuum cleaner may sound overly loud, a smell may be extra strong, or the feel of something may be extra itchy.
a need for a particular routine so they know what to expect as they can become frustrated when things don’t go the way they had expected.
trouble recognizing another person’s opinion or understanding another person’s feelings.
difficulty working on or participating in activities with no clear ending (e.g., an open ended writing activity, a class lecture)
difficulty switching from one activity to another, especially if they have to switch from something enjoyable to something not enjoyable (I think everyone can relate to that).
difficulty organizing themselves in productive play when not directed or given specific instructions.

FRONTIERS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

https://www.goodtherapy.org/learn-about-therapy/issues/pregnancy-and-birthing

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• Cognitive behaviour therapy
• Rational emotive behaviour therapy
• Biodynamic psychotherapy

• Autogenic psychotherapy.
• Dialectical behavior therapy
• Breathwork

This is an alphabetical List of Psychotherapies. It is an incomplete list and new or minor approaches are still being added.

This list contains some approaches that may not call themselves a psychotherapy but have a similar aim, of improving mental health and well being through talk and other means of communication.

In the 20th century a great number of psychotherapies appeared in western societies.

• Adlerian therapy
• Analytical psychology
• Art Therapy
• Autogenic psychotherapy
• Behavior therapy
• Biodynamic psychotherapy
• Bioenergetic analysis
• Biosynthesis
• Brief therapy
• Classical Adlerian Psychotherapy
• Co-Counselling
• Cognitive analytic psychotherapy
• Cognitive behavioural psychotherapy
• Concentrative movement therapy
• Contemplative Psychotherapy
• Core process psychotherapy
• Daseins analytic psychotherapy
• Depth Psychology
• Dialectical behavior therapy
• Emotional Freedom Techniques (EFT)
• Encounter groups
• Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR)
• Existential analysis
• Family systems therapy
• Feminist therapy
• Focusing
• Freudian psychotherapy
• Gestalt therapy
• Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy
• Group therapy
• Holotropic Breathwork
• Humanistic psychology
• Hypnotherapy
• Integrative Psychotherapy
• Internal Family Systems Model
• Jungian psychotherapy
• Logotherapy
• Multimodal Therapy
• Narrative Therapy
• Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP)
• Object relations theory
• Personal construct psychology (PCP)
• Positive psychotherapy
• Postural Integration
• Primal integration
• Process Oriented Psychology
• Primal therapy
• Provocative therapy
• Psychedelic psychotherapy
• Psychoanalysis
• Psychodrama
• Psychodynamic psychotherapy
• Psycho-Organic analysis
• Psychosynthesis
• Pulsing (bodywork)
• Rational emotive behaviour psychotherapy
• Re-evaluation Counseling
• Reality therapy
• Reichian psychotherapy
• Rogersian (or Rogerian) psychotherapy
• Rolfing
• Sophia analysis
• Self Relationship (or Sponsorship)
• Systemic therapy
• SHEN Therapy
• T Groups
• Transactional analysis (TA)
• Transpersonal psychology